Hadiah Nobel
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Melayu
Hadiah-hadiah Nobel ialah hadiah yang dimulakan oleh wasiat Alfred Nobel, dan dianugerahkan kepada individu (dan juga pertubuhan dalam kes Hadiah Keamanan Nobel) yang telah melakukan penyelidikan yang ulung, mencipta teknik atau radas yang luar biasa, atau memberi sumbangan yang utama kepada masyarakat. Hadiah-hadiah Nobel yang umumnya dianugerahkan setiap tahun dalam kategori-kategori yang disenaraikan di bawah, dianggap secara meluas sebagai pujian yang tertinggi dalam dunia pada hari ini.
Sejak November 2005, sebanyak 776 buah Hadiah Nobel telah dianugerahkan (758 kepada individu dan 18 kepada pertubuhan). [1] Bagaimanapun, beberapa pemenang hadiah telah menolak anugerah ini. Terdapat juga tahun-tahun yang hadiah ini tidak dianugerahkan; umpamanya, semasa Perang Dunia II, hadiah-hadiah Nobel langsung tidak dianugerahkan antara tahun 1940 dan 1942. Khususnya, pemilihan hadiah keamanan amat terjejas oleh pendudukan Jerman Nazi di Norway. [2]
Hadiah-hadiah Nobel harus dianugerahkan sekurang-kurangnya satu kali pada setiap lima tahun. Calon-calon harus masih hidup pada masa pencalonan dan sejak tahun 1974, anugerah ini tidak boleh diberikan selepas mati. Hadiah yang diberikan tidak boleh ditarik balik.
Jadual isi kandungan |
[Sunting] Kategori hadiah
| Pingat | Kategori | Ciri-ciri |
|---|---|---|
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Hadiah Nobel dalam Fizik | Dianugerahkan oleh Akademi Sains Diraja Sweden kepada "individu yang telah membuat penemuan atau rekaan yang paling penting dalam bidang fizik". |
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Hadiah Nobel dalam Kimia | Dianugerahkan oleh Akademi Sains Diraja Sweden kepada "individu yang telah membuat penemuan atau pembaikan kimia yang paling penting". |
 |
Hadiah Nobel dalam Fisiologi atau Perubatan | Dianugerahkan oleh Karolinska Institutet kepada "individu yang telah membuat penemuan yang paling penting dalam bidang fisiologi atau perubatan". |
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Hadiah Nobel dalam Kesusasteraan | Dianugerahkan oleh Akademi Sweden kepada "individu yang telah menghasilkan karya berkecenderungan idealistik yang paling cermelang dalam bidang kesusasteraan". |
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Hadiah Keamanan Nobel | Dianugerahkan oleh Jawatankuasa Nobel Norway kepada "individu yang telah membuat kerja yang paling banyak atau paling baik untuk persaudaraan antara negara, penghapusan atau pengurangan tentera tetap, ataupun mengadakan dan mempromosikan kongres-kongres keamanan". |
[Sunting] Hadiah Peringatan Nobel
| Pingat | Kategori | Ciri-ciri |
|---|---|---|
 |
Hadiah Peringatan Nobel dalam Ekonomi | Juga dikenali sebagai Hadiah Bank Sweden dalam Sains Ekonomi untuk Peringatan Alfred Nobel, hadiah ini dimulakan pada tahun 1969 oleh Sveriges Riksbank (Bank Sweden). Walaupun hadiah ini dianugerahkan oleh Akademi Sains Diraja Sweden pada waktu yang sama dengan Hadiah-hadiah Nobel – dan menyebabkan banyak orang dan pengulas menganggapnya sebagai satu "Hadiah Nobel" – berdasarkan alasan-alasan teknik, hadiah ini bukannya sebuah hadiah Nobel kerana hadiah ini tidak diwasiat oleh Alfred Nobel atau dibiayai oleh pusakanya. |
[Sunting] Upacara penganugerahan
The committees and institutions that serve as selection boards for the prizes typically announce the names of the laureates in October. The prizes are awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.
The peace prize ceremony was held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute from 1905 until 1946, later at the Aula of the University of Oslo, and since 1990 at the Oslo City Hall. The other prize ceremonies were held at the Stockholm Concert Hall as of 2005.
Each award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year. Each prize constitutes a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money. The monetary award is currently about 10 million Swedish Kronor (slightly more than one million Euros or about 1.3 million US dollars). This was originally intended to allow laureates to continue working or researching without the pressures of raising money. In actual fact, many prize winners have retired before winning. If there are two winners in one category, the award money is split equally between them. If there are three winners, the awarding committee has the option of splitting the prize money equally among all three, or awarding half of the prize money to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the other two. It is common for the recipients to donate the prize money to benefit scientific, cultural or humanitarian causes.
Since 1902, the King of Sweden has formally awarded all the prizes, except the Nobel Peace Prize, in Stockholm. King Oscar II initially did not approve of awarding grand national prizes to foreigners, but is said to have changed his mind after realising the publicity value of the prizes for the country.
The first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901, given by the President of Norwegian Parliament until the Norwegian Nobel Committee was established in 1904. Its five members are appointed by the Norwegian Parliament (the Stortinget), and it is entrusted both with the preparatory work related to prize adjudication and with the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize. Its members are independent and do not answer to lawmakers. Members of the Norwegian government are not allowed to take any part in it.
[Sunting] Wasiat Nobel
The prizes were instituted by the final will of Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist, industrialist, and the inventor of dynamite. Alfred Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. The last one was written on November 27, 1895—a little over a year before he died. He signed it at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on November 27, 1895. Nobel's work had directly involved the creation of explosives, and he became increasingly uneasy with the military usage of his inventions. It is said that this was motivated in part by his reading of a premature obituary of himself, published in error by a French newspaper on the occasion of the death of Nobel's brother Ludvig, and which condemned Alfred as a "merchant of death." So in his will, Alfred left 94% of his worth to the establishment of five prizes:
The whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following way:
The capital shall be invested by my executors in safe securities and shall constitute a fund, the interest on which shall be annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts, which shall be apportioned as follows: one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics; one part to the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery or improvement; one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery within the domain of physiology or medicine; one part to the person who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency; and one part to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity among nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses.
The prizes for physics and chemistry shall be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; that for physiological or medical works by the Caroline Institute in Stockholm; that for literature by the Academy in Stockholm; and that for champions of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by the Norwegian Storting. It is my express wish that in awarding the prizes no consideration whatever shall be given to the nationality of the candidates, so that the most worthy shall receive the prize, whether he be a Scandinavian or not.
Although Nobel's will established the prizes, his plan was incomplete and, due to various other hurdles, it was five years before the Nobel Foundation could be established and the first prizes awarded on December 10, 1901. [3]
[Sunting] Proses pencalonan dan pemilihan
As compared with some other prizes, the Nobel prize nomination and selection process is long and rigorous. This is an important reason why the Prizes have grown in importance and prestige over the years to become the most important prizes in their field.
Forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, are sent to about 3000 selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. For example the Nobel Foundation states that in the case of the peace prize the following people may nominate:
- Members of national assemblies and governments of states
- Members of international courts
- University rectors
- Professors of social sciences, history, philosophy, law and theology
- Directors of peace research institutes and foreign policy institutes
- Persons who have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
- Board members of organisations who have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
- Active and former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee
- Former advisers appointed by the Norwegian Nobel Institute
Similar requirements are in place for the other prizes.
The strictly enforced submission deadline for nominations is January 31.[4] Self-nominations are automatically disqualified and only living persons are eligible for the Nobel Prize.
Unlike many other awards, the Nobel Prize nominees are never publicly announced, and they are not supposed to be told that they were ever considered for the prize. These records are sealed for 50 years.
After the nomination deadline, a Committee compiles and screens the nominations to a list of around 200 preliminary candidates. The list is sent to selected experts in the field of each nominee's work and the list is shortened to around 15 final candidates. The Committee then writes a report with recommendations and sends it to the Academy or other corresponding institution, depending on the prize. As an example of institute size, the Assembly for the Prize for Medicine has 50 members. The members of the institution meet and vote to select the winner(s).
The process varies slightly between the different disciplines. For instance, Literature is rarely awarded to collaborators but the other prizes often involve multiple names.
[Sunting] Larangan pencalonan selepas mati
Posthumous nominations for the Prize are not allowed. This has sometimes sparked criticism that people deserving of a Nobel Prize did not receive the award because they died before being nominated. In two cases the Prize has been awarded posthumously to people who were nominated when they were still alive. This was the case with UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld (1961, Peace Prize) and Erik Axel Karlfeldt (1931, Literature) — both of whom were awarded the prize in the years they died.
Since 1974, awards have not been allowed for a deceased person. William Vickrey (1996, Economics) died before he could receive the prize, but after it was announced.
[Sunting] Kritikan hadiah
- Rencana utama: Perbalahan Hadiah Nobel
The Prize has been criticized over the years, with people suggesting that formal agreements and name recognition are more important than actual achievements in the process of deciding who is awarded the Prize. Perhaps the most infamous case of this was in 1973 when Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho shared the Peace Prize for bringing peace to Vietnam, even though the War in Vietnam was ongoing at the time. Le Duc Tho declined the award, for the stated reason that peace had not been achieved. There has also been widespread criticism of the 1994 Peace Prize award to Yasser Arafat.
[Sunting] Kegagalan untuk menghargai pencapaian yang serupa
Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times in between 1937 to 1948 but never won it. Research indicates that the Authority was probably planning to give him the award in 1948; however, he was assassinated in that year. The committee reportedly considered a posthumous award but ultimately decided against it, instead choosing not to award the Nobel Peace Prize to anybody for that particular year.
The strict rules against a Prize being awarded to more than three people at once is also a cause for controversy. Where a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, inevitably one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, a Prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, failing to recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt.[5]
Similarly, the rule against posthumous prizes often fails to recognise important achievements by a collaborator who happens to have died before the prize is awarded. For example, Rosalind Franklin made some of the key developments into the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, but she died of ovarian cancer in 1958 and the Prize was awarded to Francis Crick, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins (one of Franklin's collaborators) in 1962.[6]
Criticism was levied towards the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics, specifically the recognition of Roy Glauber and not George Sudarshan for the award. While citation counts indicate that Glauber's 1963 papers are the more widely referenced, it is clear that both made important contributions to the fields of quantum optics and coherence theory. Here again, the untimely death of Len Mandel and Dan Walls - who also made seminal contributions - removed these scientists, unfortunately, from the running.
Similarly, the 2000 Nobel prize in Chemistry "For the discovery and development of conductive organic polymers" ignored the earlier discovery of equally highly-conductive Charge transfer complex polymers, Weiss et als 1963 report of high conductivity in iodine-doped oxidized polypyrrole [1], and the prior report [2] of a working organic electronic device with a high-conductivity "ON" state.
[Sunting] Ketiadaan hadiah matematik
There are several possible reasons why Nobel created no Prize for mathematics. Nobel's will speaks of prizes for those inventions or discoveries of greatest practical benefit to mankind, possibly having in mind practical rather than theoretical works. Mathematics was not considered a practical science from which humanity could benefit, a key purpose for the Nobel Foundation. [7]
One other possible reason was that there was already a well known Scandinavian prize for mathematicians. The existing mathematical awards at the time were mainly due to the work of Gösta Mittag-Leffler, who founded the Acta Mathematica, a century later still one of the world's leading mathematical journals. Through his influence in Stockholm he persuaded King Oscar II to endow prize competitions and honor distinguished mathematicians all over Europe, including Hermite, Bertrand, Weierstrass, and Poincaré.
It is often repeated that Nobel refused to endow a mathematics prize because his wife had an affair with Mittag-Leffler. This story is patently untrue, as Nobel never married.[8]
In 2001, the government of Norway began awarding the Abel Prize, specifically with the intention of being a substitute for the missing mathematics Nobel. Beginning in 2004, the Shaw Prize, which resembles the Nobel Prize, included an award in mathematical sciences. The Fields Medal is often described as the "Nobel Prize of mathematics", but the comparison is not very apt because the Fields is limited to mathematicians not over forty years old.
Like the science Nobels, the Crafoord Prize in mathematics is awarded by the Swedish Royal Academy. It is generally considered the mathematics equivalent of the Nobel prize in the sciences.
[Sunting] Perkara remeh-temeh
Dalam sejarah Hadiah Nobel, terdapat hanya empat orang yang pernah menerima hadiah ini sebanyak dua kali. Mereka adalah:
- Marie Skłodowska-Curie
- Fizik (1903): Penemuan keradioaktifan
- Kimia (1911): Pengasingan radium tulen
- Linus Pauling
- John Bardeen
- Frederick Sanger
Selain itu, Jawatan Antarabangsa Persatuan Palang Merah (ICRC) telah menerima Hadiah Keamanan Nobel pada tahun 1917, 1944, dan 1963. Dua hadiah yang pertama itu adalah semata-mata untuk menghargai kerja kumpulan ini semasa perang-perang dunia.
Adik-beradik yang tunggal untuk memenangi Hadiah-hadiah Nobel ialah Jan Tinbergen (Ekonomi, 1969) dan adik lelakinya, Niko Tinbergen (Perubatan, 1973).
Hanya seorang tunggal yang pernah merupakan pemenang Oscar dan Hadiah Nobel. Tokoh Ireland, George Bernard Shawm memenangi Hadiah Nobel dalam Kesusasteraan pada tahun 1925, serta anugerah Oscar untuk "Padanan Skrip Filem Yang Terbaik" pada tahun 1938.
[Sunting] Hadiah lain
Terdapat beberapa hadiah dan anugerah antarabangsa yang terkenal dalam berbagai-bagai bidang usaha, termasuklah bidang-bidang yang tidak mempunyai hadiah Nobel, dengan kebanyakannya yang tidak begitu terkenal. Anugerah yang paling terkenal termasuk Pingat Fields, Anugerah Turing, Hadiah Templeton, dan Hadiah Wolf. Hadiah Templeton merupakan hadiah kewangan tahunan yang terbesar, dengan nilai sebanyak 795,000 paun sterling atau RM 5.56 juta (ASD$1.4 juta) pada tahun 2006. Hadiah ini diberikan kepada seorang individu tunggal untuk merit intelektualnya.
| Hadiah | Bidang | Ciri-ciri |
|---|---|---|
| Anugerah Mata Pencarian Betul | Perlindungan alam sekitar, hak asasi manusia, kesihatan, pendidikan | Diasaskan oleh Jakob von Uexkull pada tahun 1980, hadiah ini disampaikan setiap tahun di bangunan Parlimen Sweden untuk menghargai mereka "yang memberi penyelesaian praktik serta dapat menjadi contoh terhadap cabaran-cabaran terpenting yang dihadapi oleh dunia pada hari ini". |
| Anugerah Peringatan Astrid Lindgren | Kesusasteraan kanak-kanak dan pemuda-pemudi | Dimulakan pada tahun 2002 untuk menghormati Astrid Lindgren, pengarang buku kanak-kanak Sweden, hadiah ini dianugerahkan setiap tahun dengan nilai sebanyak SEK 5 juta (RM2.5 juta). |
| Fellowship MacArthur | Semua bidang kajian manusia | Hadiah ini diberikan oleh Yayasan MacArthur pada setiap tahun, biasanya kepada 20 hingga 40 orang warganegara atau penduduk Amerika Syarikat yang telah "menunjukkan merit luar biasa dan harapan untuk meneruskan dan mempertingkatkan kerja kreatif mereka". Pemberian hadiah ini tidak mengambil kira umur atau bidang". |
| Hadiah Alam Sekitar Goldman | Perlindungan alam sekitar | Anugerah ini ialah anugerah alam sekitar yang paling lumayan di dunia, dan diberikan kepada aktivis-aktivis alam sekitar dari enam kawasan geografi: Afrika, Asia, Eropah, Pulau-pulau, dan Negara-negara Pulau, serta Amerika Utara, Tengah, dan Selatan. |
| Hadiah Ig Nobel | Fizik, kimia, perubatan, kesusasteraan, keamanan | Diuruskan oleh jurnal lucu saintifik, Catatan Penyelidikan Mustahil (AIR), hadiah ini yang merupakan parodi kepada Hadiah Nobel diberikan setiap tahun kepada sepuluh pencapaian yang "buat pertama kali membuat orang ketawa, tetapi kemudiannya menyebabkan mereka berfikir". |
| Hadiah Kyoto | Seni dan falsafah, teknologi lanjutan, sains asas | Hadiah ini dianugerahkan pada setiap tahun sejak 1984 oleh Yayasan Inamori, sebuah pertubuhan bukan untung yang diasaskan oleh usahawan Jepun, Kazuo Inamori. |
| Hadiah Schock | Logik dan falsafah, matematik, seni tampak, muzik | Dimulakan oleh wasiat ahli falsafah serta ahli seni, Rolf Schock, hadiah-hadiah ini dianugerahkan buat pertama kali pada tahun 1993 di Stockholm, Sweden, dan telah dianugerahkan setiap dua tahun sejak masa itu. Setiap pemenang kini menerima SEK 400,000 (RM 201,500) . |
| Hadiah Wolf | Pertanian, kimia, matematik, perubatan, fizik, seni | Dianugerahkan setiap tahun sejak tahun 1978 kepada ahli sains dan ahli seni yang masih hidup untuk "pencapaian terhadap kepentingan manusia dan hubungan persahabatan antara orang-orang... tanpa mengira kerakyatan, ras, warna, agama, jantina, atau pandangan politik". |
| Pingat Fields | Matematik | Hadiah ini dianugerahkan pada setiap Kongres Antarabangsa Kesatuan Matematik Antarabangsa kepada dua hingga empat orang ahli matematik yang umurnya tidak melebihi 40 tahun. |
[Sunting] Lihat juga
- Hadiah Bank Sweden dalam Sains Ekonomi untuk Peringatan Alfred Nobel
- Hadiah Keamanan Lenin
- Hadiah Nobel dalam Fisiologi atau Perubatan
- Hadiah Nobel dalam Fizik
- Hadiah Nobel dalam Kesusasteraan
- Hadiah Nobel dalam Kimia
- Hadiah Nobel Keamanan
- Hadiah Teknologi Milenium
- Perbalahan Hadiah Nobel
- Pusat Keamanan Nobel
- Senarai hadiah, pingat, dan anugerah
- Senarai pemenang Hadiah Nobel
- Pemenang Hadiah Nobel mengikut gabungan universiti
- Pemenang Hadiah Nobel mengikut negara
- Pemenang Hadiah Nobel Wanita
- Senarai pemenang Hadiah Nobel Hindu
- Senarai pemenang Hadiah Nobel Muslim
- Senarai pemenang Hadiah Nobel Yahudi
[Sunting] Rujukan
- ↑ Yayasan Nobel. Fakta Hadiah Nobel. Dicapai pada July 30 2006.
- ↑ Øyvind Tønnesson. Dengan Fahaman Fasis di Depan: Institusi Nobel di Norway, 1940-1945. Dicapai pada 4 September 2006.
- ↑ The History Channel, This Day in History. First Nobel Prizes: December 10, 1901. Dicapai pada July 30 2006.
- ↑ Nobel Foundation. Nomination and Selection Process. Dicapai pada July 30 2006.
- ↑ The Scientist, Volume 3, Issue 1, Page 20021211-03. Nobel Prize controversy. Dicapai pada July 30 2006.
- ↑ Nobel Foundation. The Discovery of the Molecular Structure of DNA - The Double Helix. Dicapai pada July 30 2006.
- ↑ The Nobel Prize Internet Archive. Why is there no Nobel Prize in Mathematics?. Dicapai pada July 30 2006.
- ↑ Public Broadcasting Service. The Prize: Controversy and Landmarks. Dicapai pada July 30 2006. Archive copy at http://web.archive.org/web/20050213115242/http://www.pbs.org/kqed/nobel/sttimeline.html
[Sunting] Pautan luar
- Laman web rasmi Hadiah Nobel
- Arkib Internet Hadiah Nobel
- Mengapa tiadanya hadiah Nobel untuk sains komputer?
- Mengapa tiadanya hadiah Nobel untuk matematik?
- Jawatankuasa-jawatankuasa Nobel di Akademi Sains DiRaja Sweden
- Jawatankuasa Nobel di Institut Karolinska
- Akademi Sweden
- Jawatankuasa Nobel Norway
- Tumpuan Utama Britannica: Panduan untuk Hadiah-hadiah Nobel
- CNN: Ulang Tahun Ke-100 Nobel
| Hadiah Nobel |
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| Fisiologi atau Perubatan • Fizik • Keamanan • Kesusasteraan • Kimia |
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Hadiah untuk peringatan Alfred Nobel : Ekonomi |
