Altar
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An altar is any structure upon which sacrifices or other offerings are offered for religious purposes, or some other sacred place where ceremonies take place. Altars are usually found in shrines, a sacred place. They are found worldwide in many cultures, particularly in the religions of Christianity, Neo-Paganism, Shinto, Hinduism, Buddhism and Taoism (also known as daoism). They were also found in other ancient religions.
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[edit] Altars in the Hebrew Bible
Altars (Hebrew mizbe'ah (מזבח)) in the Hebrew Bible were typically made of earth (Ex. 20:24) or unwrought stone (20:25). Altars were generally erected in conspicuous places (Genesis 22:9; Ezekiel 6:3; 2 Kings 23:12; 16:4; 23:8.) The first altar recorded in the Hebrew Bible is that erected by Noah (Genesis 8:20). Altars were erected by Abraham (Genesis 12:7; 13:4; 22:9), by Isaac (Genesis 26:25), by Jacob (33:20; 35:1, 3), and by Moses (Exodus 17:15, Adonai-nissi).
In the Tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, two altars were erected.
(1.) The altar of burnt offering (Ex. 30:28), called also the "brasen altar" (Ex. 39:39) and "the table of the Lord" (Mal. 1:7) upon which the korbanot were offered.
The first altar, which was the "outdoor altar" that was used for animal sacrifices, is described in Ex. 27:1-8. It was a hollow square, 5 cubits in length and in breadth, and 3 cubits in height. It was made of shittim wood, and was overlaid with plates of brass. Its corners were ornamented with horns, and it had a ramp leading up to it (Ex. 29:12; Lev. 4:18). It was also filled with earth.
The second altar in the tabernacle and, in the temple later on, was indoors in the holy of holies, and this one was made of gold. It was a rectangular prism with horned corners, fringes of gold around the top, and poles to be carried with. This altar was used for incense offerings.
In Ex. 27:3 the various utensils used with the altar are enumerated. They were made of brass. (Comp. 1 Sam. 2:13, 14; Lev. 16:12; Num. 16:6, 7.)No utensils made of iron or of bronze were allowed near/on the altar as they were a sign of war.
In Solomon's temple the altar was of larger dimensions (2 Chr. 4:1. Comp. 1 Kings 8:22, 64; 9:25), and was made wholly of brass, covering a structure of stone or earth. This altar was renewed by Asa (2 Chr. 15:8). It was removed by Ahaz (2 Kings 16:14), and "cleansed" by Hezekiah, in the latter part of whose reign it was rebuilt. It was finally broken up and carried away by the Babylonians (Jer. 52:17).
After the return from captivity it was re-erected (Ezra 3:3,6) where it had formerly stood. (Comp. 1 Macc. 4:47.) When Antiochus IV Epiphanes pillaged Jerusalem he defiled the altar of burnt offering by erecting a pagan altar upon it. Judas Maccabeus renewed the altar when he re-took Jerusalem. It was likely refurbushed by Herod during his extensive building activity on the Temple Mount, and remained in its place until the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 A.D.
The fire on the altar was not permitted to go out (Lev. 6:9).
In the Mosque of Omar, immediately underneath the great dome, which occupies the site of the old temple, there is a rough projection of the natural rock, of about 60 feet in its extreme length, and 50 in its greatest breadth, and in its highest part about 4 feet above the general pavement. This rock seems to have been left intact when Solomon's temple was built, and may have been the site of the altar of burnt offering, although a recent analysis suggests it may have been the floor of the Holy of Holies. Underneath this rock is a cave, which may have been the granary of Araunah's threshing-floor (1 Chr. 21:22).
(2.) The altar of incense (Ex. 30:1-10), called also "the golden altar" (39:38; Num. 4:11), stood in the holy place "before the vail that is by the ark of the testimony." On this altar sweet spices were continually burned with fire taken from the brazen altar. The morning and the evening services were opened by the high priest offering incense on this altar. The burning of the incense was a type of prayer (Ps. 141:2; Rev. 5:8; 8:3, 4).
This altar was a small movable table, made of acacia wood overlaid with gold (Ex. 37:25, 26). It was 1 cubit in length and breadth, and 2 cubits in height.
In Solomon's temple the altar was similar in size, but was made of cedar-wood (1 Kings 6:20; 7:48) overlaid with gold. In Ezek. 41:22 it is called "the altar of wood." (Comp. Ex. 30:1-6.)
In the temple built after the Exile the altar was restored. Antiochus Epiphanes took it away, but it was afterwards restored by Judas Maccabeus (1 Macc. 1:23; 4:49). Among the trophies carried away by Titus on the destruction of Jerusalem the altar of incense is not found, nor is any mention made of it in Hebrews 9. It was at this altar that Zacharias ministered when an angel appeared to him (Luke 1:11).
This entry incorporates text from the public domain Easton's Bible Dictionary, originally published in 1897.
[edit] Altars in Christianity
The word "altar" (Greek: θυσιαστήριον) appears twenty-four times in the New Testament. Significantly, Hebrews 13:10 spoke of Christians having an altar of which those who follow the Jewish liturgy could not partake, a reference, it seems, to Christ. The doctrine of Christ's substitutionary atonement allowed the Christian celebration of the Last Supper - the Eucharist - to be seen as a memorial of Christ's sacrifice. In Catholic theology it is a re-presentation, in the literal sense of the one sacrifice being made "present again." Hence, the table upon which the meal (the bread and the wine) is prepared came to be seen as an altar.
[edit] Altars in Christian churches
Altars occupy a prominent place in the chancels of many churches, invariably in those of pre-Reformation Christians, such as those belonging to the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Assyrian Churches, but also in those of Anglicans, Lutherans, Methodists, and other more sacramental denominations. It plays a central role in the sacrament of the Eucharist which a priest or minister celebrates at the altar, on which the bread and the wine are placed.
The area around the altar is seen as endowed with greater holiness, and usually is physically distinguished from the rest of the church, whether by a permanent structure such as an iconostasis, a rood screen or altar rails, by a curtain that can be closed at more solemn moments of the liturgy, as in the Armenian Church, or simply by the general architectural layout. In Reformed and Anabaptist churches, a table, often called a "communion table", serves an analogous function. In some Protestant denominations, the word "altar" is used to denote the chancel or sanctuary area of the church, although this usage is technically incorrect.
Churches generally have a single altar, although in the West, where concelebration had formerly fallen into disuse and priests celebrated Mass individually, larger churches may have one or more "side chapels", each with its own altar. In such churches, the main altar was also referred to the "high altar". Newly built Roman Catholic churches do not, as a rule, feature this multiplicity of altars. But in large churches, whether Catholic or Anglican, there may be a high altar in the main body of the church, with one or more adjoining chapels, each with its own altar, at which the Eucharist may be celebrated on weekdays.
Architecturally, there are two types of altars: those that are attached to the eastern wall of the chancel, and those that are free-standing and can be walked around, for instance when incensing the altar.
In the earliest days of the Church, the Eucharist appears to have been celebrated on portable tables set up for the purpose. Some historians hold that, during the persecutions, the Eucharist was celebrated among the tombs in the catacombs, using the sarcophagi of martyrs as tables on which to celebrate. Other historians dispute this, but it is thought to be the origin of the tradition of placing relics beneath the altar.
When Christianity was legalized under Constantine, formal church buildings were built in great numbers, normally with free-standing altars in the middle of the sanctuary, which in all the earliest churches built in Rome was at the west end of the church.[1] The ministers (bishop, priests, deacons, subdeacons, acolytes), celebrated the Eucharist facing east, towards the entrance. Some hold that for the central part of the celebration the congregation faced the same way. After the sixth century the contrary orientation prevailed, with the entrance to the west and the altar at the east end. Then the ministers and congregation all faced east during the whole celebration; and in Western Europe altars began, in the Middle Ages, to be permanently placed against the east wall of the chancel.
Most rubrics, even in books of the seventeenth century and later, such as the Pontificale Romanum, continued to envisage the altar as free-standing. The rite of the Dedication of the Church[2] continued to presume that the officiating Bishop could circle the altar during the consecration of the church and its altar. Despite this, with the increase in the size and importance of the reredos, most altars were built against the wall or barely separated from it.
In almost all cases, the eastward orientation for prayer was maintained, whether the altar was at the west end of the church, as in all the earliest churches in Rome, in which case, the priest celebrating Mass faced the congregation and the church entrance, or whether it was at the east end of the church, in which case the priest faced the eastern apse and had his back to the congregation. This diversity was recognized in the rubrics of the Roman Missal from the 1604 typical edition of Pope Clement VIII to the 1962 edition of Pope John XXIII: "Si altare sit ad orientem, versus populum …"[3]
The present rules regarding Latin-Rite liturgy declare a free-standing main altar to be "desirable wherever possible."[4] Similarly, in the Anglican Communion, the rubrics of the Book of Common Prayer assumed an altar fixed against the wall, until Prayer Book revision in the twentieth century removed language which assumed any particular form of altar.
As well as altars in the structural sense, it became customary in the West to have what in Latin were referred to as altaria portatilia (portable altars), more commonly referred to in English as "altar stones". When travelling, a priest could take one with him and place it on an ordinary table for saying Mass. They were also inserted into the centre of structural altars especially those made of wood. In that case, it was the altar stone that was considered liturgically to be the altar. The Pontificale Romanum contained a rite for blessing at the same time several of these altar stones.[5] In the East the antimension served and continues to serve the same purpose. In the West, the obligation to use one for the celebration of Mass has been abolished.
The term "movable altar" or "portable altar" is now used of a full-scale structural altar, with or without an inserted altar stone, that can in fact be moved.[6]
Such altars are found in Roman Catholic churches awaiting restructuring from an arrangement in which a priest celebrated Mass at a remote high altar, usually facing away from them, to one in which he is closer to the congregation and generally facing them. Both Catholic and Protestant churches use them to celebrate the Eucharist in places other than a church or chapel (such as outdoors or in an auditorium). In those Protestant churches in which the focus of worship is not on the Eucharist, which may be celebrated rarely, and in churches which want to make use of both a fixed and free-standing altar at different services, they are not only movable but are in fact occasionally moved. Churches that have adhered to the Protestant Reformation have favoured as altars free-standing wooden tables placed in the quire away from the east wall and the high altar, and without any altar stone.
[edit] Altars in Roman Catholic churches
In the General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 298-303 the Roman Catholic Church declares:
It is appropriate to have a fixed altar in every church, since it more clearly and permanently signifies Christ Jesus, the living stone (1 Peter 2:4; cf. Ephesians 2:20). In other places set aside for sacred celebrations, the altar may be movable.
An altar is called 'fixed' if it is attached to the floor so as not to be irremovable; otherwise it is called 'movable'."
The altar should be built apart from the wall, in such a way that it is possible to walk around it easily and that Mass can be celebrated at it facing the people, which is desirable wherever possible. The altar should, moreover, be so placed as to be truly the centre towards which the attention of the whole congregation of the faithful naturally turns.
In keeping with the Church's traditional practice and the altar's symbolism, the table of a fixed altar is to be of stone and indeed of natural stone. However, in accordance with the judgement of the Episcopal Conference, another worthy, solid, and well-crafted material may be used. The supports or base for upholding the table, however, may be made of any sort of material, provided it is worthy and solid.
A movable altar may be constructed of any noble and solid materials suited to liturgical use, according to the traditions and usages of the different regions.
The practice of placing relics of Saints, even those not Martyrs, under the altar to be dedicated is fittingly retained. Care should be taken, however, to ensure the authenticity of such relics.
In building new churches, it is preferable to erect a single altar which in the gathering of the faithful will signify the one Christ and the one Eucharist of the Church.
In already existing churches, however, when the old altar is positioned so that it makes the people's participation difficult but cannot be moved without damage to its artistic value, another fixed altar, of artistic merit and duly dedicated, should be erected and sacred rites celebrated on it alone.
Out of reverence for the celebration of the memorial of the Lord and for the banquet in which the Body and Blood of the Lord are offered on an altar where this memorial is celebrated, there should be at least one white cloth, its shape, size, and decoration in keeping with the altar's design.
Only what is required for the celebration of the Mass may be placed on the mensa of the altar: namely, from the beginning of the celebration until the proclamation of the Gospel, the Book of the Gospels; then from the Presentation of the Gifts until the purification of the vessels, the chalice with the paten, a ciborium, if necessary, and, finally, the corporal, the purificator, the pall, and the Missal. In addition, microphones that may be needed to amplify the priest's voice should be arranged discreetly.
The candles, which are required at every liturgical service out of reverence and on account of the festiveness of the celebration, are to be appropriately placed either on or around the altar in a way suited to the design of the altar and the sanctuary so that the whole may be well balanced and not interfere with the faithful's clear view of what takes place at the altar or what is placed on it.
There is also to be a cross, with the figure of Christ crucified upon it, either on the altar or near it, where it is clearly visible to the assembled congregation. It is appropriate that such a cross, which calls to mind for the faithful the saving Passion of the Lord, remain near the altar even outside of liturgical celebrations.
- See also:
[edit] Altars in Anglican churches
Altars in the Anglican Communion vary widely. At the time of the Reformation, altars were fixed against the east end of the church, and the priests would celebrate the Mass standing at the front of the altar. Beginning with the rubrics of the Second Prayer Book of Edward VI published in 1552, and through the 1662 Book of Common Prayer (which prevailed for almost 300 years), the priest is directed to stand "at the north syde of the Table [altar]." This was variously interpreted over the years to mean the north side of the front of a fixed altar, the north end of a fixed altar (ie., facing south), the north side of a free-standing altar (presumably facing those intending to receive the Elements who would be sitting in the quire stalls opposite), or at the north end of a free-standing altar placed lengthwise in the chancel, facing a congregation seated in the nave.
Often, where a celebrant chose to situate himself was meant to convey his churchmanship (that is, more Reformed or more Catholic). The use of candles or tabernacles were banned by canon law, with the only appointed adornment being a white linen cloth.
Beginning with the Catholic Revival in the 19th Century, the appearance of Anglican altars took a dramatic turn in many churches. Candles and, in some cases, tabernacles were reintroduced. In some churches two candles, on each end of the altar, were used; in other cases six - three on either side of a tabernacle, typically surmounted by a crucifix or some other image of Christ.
In Anglican practice, conformity to a given standard depends on the ecclesiastical province and/or the liturgical sensibilities of a given parish. In the Parson's Handbook, an influential manual for priests popular in the early-to-mid-twentieth century, Percy Dearmer recommends the size of an altar be "as nearly as possible 3 ft. 3 in. high, and at least deep enough to take a corporal [the square of linen placed underneath the Communion vessels] 20 in. square with a foot or more to spare." He also recommends that the altar stand upon three steps for each of the three sacred ministers, and that it be decorated with a silk frontal in the seasonal colour. In some cases, other manuals suggest that a stone be set in the top of wooden altars, in the belief that the custom be maintained of consecrating the bread and wine on a stone surface. In many other Anglican parishes, the custom is considerably less rigorous, especially in those parishes which use free-standing altars. Typically, these altars are made of wood, and may or may not have a solid front, which may or may not be ornamented. In many Anglican parishes, the use of frontals has persisted.
When altars are placed away from the wall of the chancel allowing a westward orientation, only two candles are placed on either end of it, since six would obscure the liturgical action, undermining the intent of a westward orientation (ie., that it be visible to the congregation). In such an arrangement, a tabernacle may stand to one side of or behind the altar, or an aumbry may be used.
Sensibilities concerning the sanctity of the altar are widespread in Anglicanism. In some parishes, the notion that the surface of the altar should only be touched by those in holy orders is maintained. In others, there is considerably less strictness. Nonetheless, the continued popularity of altar rails in Anglican church construction suggests that a sense of the sanctity of the altar and its surrounding area persists. In most cases, moreover, the practice of allowing only those items that have been blessed to be placed on the altar is maintained (that is, the linen cloth, candles, missal, and the Eucharistic vessels).
[edit] Altars in Eastern Christian churches
"Altar" has a meaning in the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox churches that varies with context. Its most common usage does not denote the table itself, but the area surrounding it, behind the iconostasis, that is also called the sanctuary. When one enters the sanctuary, one is said to be "going into the altar". The table may alternately be referred to as the Holy Table or the Throne. This section will describe the Holy Table, not the sanctuary.
For both the Orthodox and Eastern Catholics, altars are always free-standing, although in very small sanctuaries they might be placed flush against the back wall for reasons of space. They are typically about one meter high, and although they may be made of stone they are generally built out of wood. The exact dimensions may vary, but it must be square in plan of a size in reasonable proportion to the sanctuary. It has five legs: one at each corner plus a central pillar for supporting the altar's relics. Over all is a plain linen cover bound to the altar with cords, and this cover is never removed after the altar is consecrated. (Since the altar is never seen uncovered thereafter, they tend to be constructed more with sturdiness than aesthetics in mind.) Above this first cover is a second ornamented cover, often in a brocade of a color that may change with the liturgical season.
Atop the altar is the tabernacle, a miniature shrine sometimes built in the form of a church, inside of which is a small ark containing the reserved Sacrament for use in communing the sick. Also kept on the altar is the Gospel book and the antimension, a silken cloth imprinted with an icon of Christ being prepared for burial, which has a relic sewn into it and bears the signature of the bishop. The Divine Liturgy must be served on an antimension even if the altar has been consecrated and contains relics. When not in use, the antimension is left in place wrapped in the eiliton, a cloth of plain silk, linen or cotton.
The altar may only be touched by ordained men, and nothing which is not itself consecrated or an object of veneration should be placed on it. Objects may also be placed on the altar as part of the process for setting them aside for sacred use. For example, icons are usually blessed by laying them on the altar for a period of time or for a certain number of Divine Liturgies before sprinkling them with holy water.
In place of the outer covering, some altars have a permanent solid cover which may be highly ornamented, richly carved, or even plated in precious metals. A smaller brocade cover is used on top of this if it is desired that the altar decorations reflect the liturgical season.
The altar is used as the place of offering in the celebration of the eucharist, where bread and wine are offered to God the Father and the Holy Spirit is invoked to make his Son Jesus Christ present in the gifts. It is also the place where the presiding clergy stand at any service, even where no eucharist is being celebrated and no offering is made but prayer.
[edit] Altars in Neo-Paganism
In Neo-Paganism, in particular the tradition of Wicca, altars are of particular importance. Since many Neo-Pagan traditions currently worship in the home of a member of the fellowship, the altar may be a permanent part of the home or a portable set of items set on a surface which will be consecrated and released at each event. Any surface can be used, although some traditions prefer a particular type of wood, stone, or other natural material. The altar may be of any shape and size, or even a patch of ground. The items brought to the altar may be a random assortment of personally significant items or a particular set with ritual significance. Traditionally, altar items may include but are not limited to: candles of significant colors, cups or bowls or cauldrons, small statues of gods and goddesses, a ritual knife which in most traditions must never be defiled by being used to cause damage, a wand, a bowl of salt, a bell, and possibly some crystals. The altar is usually covered in some sort of cloth. Some traditions separate the items on the altar into the four Greek classical elements, of earth, air, fire and water; other traditions assign gender preferences to the items and believe they signify the masculine/feminine principles.
[edit] Altars in Hinduism
See Vedic altars
In Hinduism, altars are also shrines to the gods, and therefore sacred. Offerings and sacrifices are made at these shrines, to the gods. A large shrine is found in the temple, or mandir, while smaller ones are found in the home. A Hindu shrine consists of images of the gods called murtis, and offerings to that god. There is usually also lights, pictures of saints and gurus, and offerings, often of food.
[edit] Altars in Buddhism
In Buddhism, altars are found at shrines. The shrines depict images of the Buddha or the Bodhisattvas.
[edit] Altars in Shinto
See Jinja
In Shinto, altars are found in shrines.
[edit] High places
High places are elevated spots on which altars were erected for worship in the belief that, as they were nearer heaven than the plains and valleys, they were more favourable places for prayer. The practice of worship on these spots, though after the temple was built it had been forbidden, became frequent among the Hebrews, and was with difficulty abolished, though denounced time after time by the prophets as an affront to God. A closely related example is a "backyard" altar, so to speak. Before there was a set temple and a set altar people set up their own altars on their property. After the temple was established using of these altars was forbidden, unlike the preivous case this was quickly eradicated.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ "When Christians in fourth-century Rome could first freely begin to build churches, they customarily located the sanctuary towards the west end of the building in imitation of the sanctuary of the Jerusalem Temple. Although in the days of the Jerusalem Temple the high priest indeed faced east when sacrificing on Yom Kippur, the sanctuary within which he stood was located at the west end of the Temple. The Christian replication of the layout and the orientation of the Jerusalem Temple helped to dramatize the eschatological meaning attached to the sacrificial death of Jesus the High Priest in the Epistle to the Hebrews."<ref>[http://www.sacredarchitecture.org/pubs/saj/articles/biblical_roots.php The Biblical Roots of Church Orientation] by Helen Dietz</li>
<li id="_note-1">'''[[#_ref-1|^]]''' [http://members.aol.com/liturgialatina/pontificale/041.htm/ ''De ecclesiae dedicatione seu consacratione'']</li> <li id="_note-2">'''[[#_ref-2|^]]''' [http://www.ecclesiacatholica.com/missale%20romanum/ritus%20servandus.htm/ Ritus servandus Missae, V, 3</li> <li id="_note-3">'''[[#_ref-3|^]]''' [http://www.usccb.org/liturgy/current/revmissalisromanien.shtml General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 299.])</li> <li id="_note-4">'''[[#_ref-4|^]]''' [http://members.aol.com/liturgialatina/pontificale/047.htm De altarium portatilium consecratione]</li>
<li id="_note-5">'''[[#_ref-5|^]]''' [http://www.usccb.org/liturgy/current/revmissalisromanien.shtml General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 298]</li></ol></ref>
This article incorporates text from the public domain 1907 edition of The Nuttall Encyclopædia.
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