Nepali language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Nepali नेपाली Nepālī |
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|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spoken in: | Nepal, India, Bhutan. | |||
| Region: | South Asia. | |||
| Total speakers: | 40 million approx. | |||
| Ranking: | 27 | |||
| Language family: | Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Pahari (Northern zone) Eastern Pahari Nepali |
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| Writing system: | Devanagari script | |||
| Official status | ||||
| Official language of: | Nepal, Sikkim (India) | |||
| Regulated by: | Language Academy of Nepal | |||
| Language codes | ||||
| ISO 639-1: | ne | |||
| ISO 639-2: | nep | |||
| ISO 639-3: | nep | |||
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Nepali (Khaskura) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Nepal, Bhutan, and some parts of India and Myanmar (Burma). It is the official language of Nepal. Roughly half the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as a mother tongue, and many other Nepalese speak it as a second language.
Nepali goes by various names. English speakers generally call it Nepali or Nepalese (i.e. the language of Nepal).
It is also called Gorkhali or Gurkhali, "the language of the Gurkhas, "and Parbatiya, "the language of the mountains." Khaskura is the oldest term, literally speech of the Khas who were rice-growing Indo-Aryan settlers in the Karnali-Bheri basin of far western Nepal since prehistoric or early historic times. Khaskura exists in opposition to Khamkura, a group of Tibeto-Burman dialects spoken by Kham peoples in highlands separating the Kharnali-Bheri basin from the Gandaki basin in central Nepal.
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[edit] History
Then perhaps 500 years ago, Khas peoples migrated eastward, bypassing the inhospitable Kham highlands to settle in the lower valleys of the Gandaki basin suited to rice cultivation. One notable extended family settled in Gorkha, a petty principality about halfway between Pokhara and Kathmandu. Then in the late 1700s a scion named Prithvi Narayan raised an army of Gurungs, Magars and possibly other hill tribesmen and set out to conquer and consolidate dozens of petty principalities in the himalayan foothills. Since Gorkha had replaced the original Khas homeland as the center of political and military initiative, Khaskura was redubbed Gorkhali, i.e. language of the Gorkhas.
Prithvi Narayan's especially notable military achievement was conquest of the urbanized Kathmandu Valley, on the eastern rim of the Gandaki basin. This region was also called Nepal at the time. Kathmandu became Prithvi Narayan's new capital, then he and his heirs extended their domain east into the Kosi basin, north to the Tibetan Plateau, south into the plains of northern India, and west of the Karnali/Bheri basin.
Expansion, particularly to the north, west and south brought the growing state into conflict with British and Chinese territorial ambitions. This led to wars that trimmed it back to roughly Nepal's present borders or less, however both great powers understood the value of a buffer state and did not attempt to reduce the new country further. Since the Kathmandu Valley or Nepal had become the new center of political initiative, this word gradually came to refer to the entire realm and not just the Kathmandu Valley. And so Gorkhali, language of Gorkha, was again redubbed Nepali.
Nepali is the easternmost of the Pahari languages, a group of related languages spoken across the lower elevations of the Himalaya range, from eastern Nepal through the Indian states of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Nepali developed in proximity to a number of Tibeto-Burman languages, most notably Nepal Bhasa, and shows Tibeto-Burman influences.
Nepali is closely related to Hindi but is more conservative, borrowing fewer words from Persian and English and using more Sanskritic derivations. Today, Nepali is commonly written in the Devanagari script. Bhujimol is an older script native to Nepal.
Nepali developed a small literature during the second half of the nineteenth century, which included the Adhyatma Ramayana by Sundarananda Bara (1833), Birsikka, an anonymous collection of folk-tales, and a Ramayana by Bhanubhakta. There were also several translations of Sanskrit works, and a version of the Bible.
See also: Lhotshampa
[edit] Grammar
Nepali is a generally head-final language, which gives, among other things, an SOV word-order, and postpositions instead of prepositions. It has limited grammatical gender, although in many cases gender agreement is confined to the written form of the language.
[edit] Postpositions
Nepali nouns do not inflect for case. However, there are a number of postpositions which have a case-like function. These postpositions are clitics. That is, they are affixes which attach to an entire phrase, rather than a single word. These include -को ko, a possessive postposition, -ले le, which performs an ergative function in the past tense, but also an instrumental postposition. A further important grammatical postposition is -लाई lāī, which marks the direct object on animate nouns, as well as the indirect object on all nouns. Additionally, there are a number of postpositions which perform similar functions to normal prepositions in languages such as English.
As well as simple postpositions, there are two-part postpositions. That is, a postposition, especially -को ko or -भन्दा bhandā, followed by another word, which together form a single positional meaning. Examples are -को बारेमा ko bāremā 'about', -को लागि ko lāgi 'for', and -भन्दा माथी bhandā māthī 'above.
[edit] Pronouns
Nepali has an elaborate system of pronouns, depending on the gender, number, distance, and status of the referent. The latter can be understood as being normally divided into three grades: low grade, middle grade and high grade. With third-person pronouns, the low grade is used when the person is not present or of low status, the middle grade is primarily (outside of a literary context) used for women, although one of the plurals of the middle-grade pronouns is commonly used for groups. The high-grade form is used for people who are present or of high status. There is a similar, but simpler system for second-person pronouns, in which the low-grade form is used for small children, animals, and pejoratively; the middle-grade is used for people younger or of lower status than the speaker, and also as a familiar form of address; the high-grade is used for people older, or of higher status, and also as a polite form of address. Finally, there is an additional form for extremely formal situations.
The third person singular pronouns can be summarised as follows:
| Proximal | Distal | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Low-grade | यो yo | त्यो tyo | ऊ ū |
| Middle-grade | यिनी yinī | तिनी tinī | उनी unī |
| High-grade | यहाँ yahā̃ | वहाँ vahā̃ | |
The remaining personal pronouns are relatively simple: The second person pronouns are तँ tã, तिमी timī, तपाईं tapāī̃ and हजुर hajur. The first person singular pronoun is म ma, and the first person plural is हामी hāmī. Most of the pronouns pluralise (even हामी hāmī, for emphasis) with the suffix -हरू harū. However, म ma, तँ tã and ऊ ū do not pluralise, and यो yo and त्यो tyo have यी yī and ती tī as plurals.
[edit] Verbs
Verbs in Nepali are quite highly inflected, agreeing with the subject in number, gender, status and person. They also inflect for tense, mood, and aspect. As well as these inflected finite forms, there are also a large number of participial forms.
Possibly the most important verb in Nepali, as well as the most irregular, is the verb हुनु hunu 'to be, to become'. In the simple present tense, there are at least three conjugations of हुनु hunu, only one of which is regular. The first, the ho-conjugation is, broadly speaking, used to define things, and as such its complement is usually a noun. The second, the cha-conjugation is used to describe things, and the complement is usually an adjectival or prepositional phrase. The third, the huncha-conjugation, is used to express regular occurrences or future events, and also expresses 'to become' or 'to happen'.
They are conjugated as follows:
| हो ho | छ cha | हुन्छ huncha | |
|---|---|---|---|
| First person singular | हुँ hũ | छु chu | हुन्छु hunchu |
| First person plural | हौँ haũ | छौँ chaũ | हुन्छौँ hunchaũ |
| Second person singular low-grade | होस् hos | छस् chas | हुन्छस् hunchas |
| Second person middle-grade/plural | हौ hau | छौ chau | हुन्छौ hunchau |
| High grade | हुनुहन्छ hunuhuncha | हुनुहन्छ hunuhuncha | हुनुहन्छ hunuhuncha |
| Third person singular low-grade | हो ho | छ cha | हुन्छ huncha |
| Third person middle-grade/plural masculine | हुन् hun | छन् chan | हुन्छन् hunchan |
| Third person middle-grade/plural feminine | हुन् hun | छिन् chin | हुन्छिन् hunchin |
हुनु hunu also has two suppletive stems in the simple past, namely भ- bha- (the use of which corresponds to the huncha-conjugation) and थि- thi- (which corresponds to both the cha and ho-conjugations) which are otherwise regularly conjugated. भ- bha- is also the stem used in the formation of the various participles.
The finite forms of regular verbs are conjugated as follows (using गर्नु garnu 'to do' as an example):
| Simple Present/Future | Probable Future | Simple Past | Past Habitual | Injunctive | Imperative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First person singular | गर्छु garchu 'I (will) do' | गरुँला garũlā 'I will (probably) do' | गरेँ garẽ 'I did' | गर्थेँ garthẽ 'I used to do' | गरुँ garũ 'may I do' | - |
| First person plural | गर्छौँ garchaũ 'We (will) do' | गरौँला garaũlā 'We will (probably) do' | गर्यौ garyaũ 'We did' | गर्थ्यौँ garthyaũ 'We used to do' | गरौँ garaũ 'may we do, let's do' | - |
| Second person singular low-grade | गर्छस् garchas 'you (will) do' | गर्लास् garlās 'you will (probably) do' | गरिस् garis 'you did' | गर्थिस् garthis 'you used to do' | गरेस् gares 'may you do' | गर् gar 'do!' |
| Second person middle-grade/plural | गर्छौ garchau 'you (will) do' | गरौला garaulā 'you will (probably) do' | गर्यौ garyau 'you did' | गर्थ्यौ garthyau 'you used to do' | गरौ garau 'may you do' | गर gara 'do' |
| High grade | गर्नुहुन्छ garnuhuncha 'you (will) do' | गर्नुहोला garnuhola 'you will (probably) do' | गर्नुभयो garnubhayo 'you did' | गर्नुहुन्थ्यो garnuhunthyo 'you used to do' | गर्नुहोस् garnuhos 'may you do, please do' | - |
| Third person singular low-grade | गर्छ garcha 'he does' | गर्ला garlā 'he will (probably) do' | गर्यो garyo 'he did' | गर्थ्यो garthyo 'he used to do' | गरोस् garos 'may he do' | - |
| Third person middle-grade/plural masculine | गर्छन् garchan 'they (will) do' | गर्लान् garlān 'they will (probably) do' | गरे gare 'they did' | गर्थे garthe 'they used to do' | गरून् garūn 'may they do' | - |
| Third person middle-grade/plural feminine | गर्छिन् garchin 'she (will) do' | गर्लिन् garlin 'she will (probably) do' | गरिन् garin 'she did' | गर्थिन् garthin 'she used to do' | गरुन् garūn 'may she do' | - |
As well as these, there are two forms which are infinitival and participial in origin, but are frequently used as if they were finite verbs. Again using गर्नु garnu as an example, these are गरेको gareko 'did' and गर्ने garne 'will do'. Since they are simpler than the conjugated forms, these are often overused by non-native speakers, which can sound stilted.
The eko-participle is also the basis of perfect tenses in Nepali. This is formed by using the auxilliary verb हुनु hunu (usually the cha-form in the present tense and the thi-form in the past) with the eko-participle. So, for example, मैले काम गरेको छु maile kām gareko chu means 'I have done (the) work'.
[edit] Infinitives
Nepali has two infinitives. The first is formed by adding -नु nu to the verb stem. This is the citation form of the verb, and is used in a number of constructions, the most important being the construction expressing obligation. This is formed by combining the nu-infinitive with the verb पर्नु parnu 'to fall'. This is an impersonal construction, which means that the object marker -लाई lāī is often added to the agent, unless the verb is transitive, in which case the ergative/instrumental case marker -ले le is added. So, for example, I have to do work would be translated as मैले काम गर्नुपर्छ maile kām garnuparcha. It is also used with the preposition -अघि aghi 'before'. गर्नुअघि garnuaghi, then, means 'before doing'.
The second infinitive is formed by adding -न na to the verb stem. It is used to express purpose, and also with the verb सक्नु saknu 'to be able to.
[edit] Phrases
Examples of phrases in Nepali include:
- namaste. नमस्ते — all-purpose Hindu greeting, often translated as "I salute the god within you". Its literal Sanskrit meaning is "your homage" and in common usage simply means "hello" or "goodbye."
- tapāī̃ko/timro nām ke ho? तपाईंको/तिम्रो नाम के हो? - What is your name?
- mero nām Ālok ho.मेरो नाम आलोक हो — My name is Alok .
- tapāī̃lāī/timilāī kasto cha? तपाईंलाई/तिमीलाई कस्तो छ? — How are you?
The following are more commonly used: ke cha? के छ? (informal), sañcai hunuhuncha? सञ्चै हुनुहुन्छ? (formal)
- khānā khāne ṭhāũ kahā̃ cha? खाना खाने ठाउँ कहाँ छ? — Where is a place to eat?
- kāṭhmāḍaũ jāne bāṭo dherai lāmo cha. काठ्माडौँ जाने बाटो धेरै लामो छ — The road to Kathmandu is very long.
- nepālmā baneko नेपालमा बनेको — Made in Nepal.
- ma nepālī hũ म नेपाली हूँ — I am Nepali.
- pugyo पुग्यो — That is enough.
[edit] Further Reading
[edit] Courses and Grammars
- Hutt, M. & Subedi, A. (2003) Teach Yourself Nepali.
[edit] Dictionaries
- Schmidt, R. L. (1993) A Practical Dictionary of Modern Nepali.
- Turner, R. L. (1931) A Comparative and Etymological Dictionary of the Nepali Language.
[edit] External links
- How to write nepali
- Nepali Discussion Forums
- Download Nepali Word Processor: Madhyam developed by Balendu Sharma Dadhich
- A window to newar culture: jwajalapa know more about Nepal Bhasa (Newar Language) and culture of Nepal
- Translation of useful phrases in Nepali language.
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