Neuro-linguistic programming

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This article should not be confused with neurolinguistics, a subdiscipline of neuroscience which studies the relation between brain and language.

Contents 1 General description 2 Concepts and methods 2.1 Internal 'maps' of the world 2.2 Modeling 2.3 Meta model 2.4 Milton model 2.5 Representational systems 2.6 Aphorisms 2.7 Techniques 3 History and development 3.1 1970s: Founding and early development 3.2 1980s: New developments and scientific assessment 3.3 1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing 3.4 2000s: Legal settlement and government regulation 4 Reception 4.1 Psychological research and reviews 4.1.1 Sharpley's review of evidence for preferred representational systems 4.1.2 Other reviews of evidence 4.1.3 Wider critiques from psychologists 4.1.4 Ongoing research 4.2 Mental health practice 4.3 Human resources 4.4 Commercialization, manipulation and persuasion 4.5 Popular culture and media 5 Classifying NLP 5.1 Science and pseudoscience 5.2 Humanistic Psychology 5.3 Technology 5.4 Religiosity and spirituality 6 See also 7 Notes and references 8 Further reading 9 External links 9.1 Associations 9.2 Research 9.3 Skeptics

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a personal development system developed in the early 1970s by Richard Bandler and John Grinder, in association with Gregory Bateson. It uses an assortment of techniques, axioms and beliefs about human perception and subjective experience.

NLP's core idea is that an individual's thoughts, gestures and words interact to create one's perception of the world. These observations can be changed applying a variety of techniques. By changing one's outlook, therefore, a person can improve their attitudes and actions.

NLP teaches that a person can develop successful habits by amplifying helpful behaviors and diminishing negative ones. Positive change can come when one carefully reproduces the behaviors and beliefs of successful people. Furthermore, it also states that all human beings have all the resources necessary for success within themselves.

Bandler and Grinder credited Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir and Milton Erickson as NLP's major inspirations. The two developed special “patterns” for “modeling” general communication, rapport-building and self-improvement. NLP author Robert Dilts calls the system "the study of the structure of subjective experience."^[1]

Despite its popularity^[2][3] NLP continues to be controversial, particularly for use in therapy. After three decades of existence, its techniques remain scientifically unvalidated.^[4] NLP has also been criticized for lacking a defining and regulating body to impose standards and a professional ethical code.^[5]

[edit] General description

One of a series of articles on Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP)
Main articles NLP · Principles · Topics · History NLP and science · Therapy · Bibliography
Concepts and methods Modeling · Meta model · Milton model Perceptual positions · Rapport · Reframing Representation systems · Submodalities Positive intention · Meta program · Neurological levels Anchoring · Well-formed outcome
People Richard Bandler · John Grinder Robert Dilts · Stephen Gilligan Judith DeLozier · David Gordon Connirae Andreas · Steve Andreas Frank Pucelik · Paul McKenna Ross Jeffries · Tony Robbins Genie Laborde · Charles Faulkner
Principal influences Fritz Perls · Gestalt therapy Milton Erickson · Hypnotherapy Virginia Satir · Family therapy Transformational linguistics Gregory Bateson · Paul Watzlawick Epistemology · Double Bind Alfred Korzybski · Map-territory Frank Farrelly · Provocative therapy This box: view • talk • edit

NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as beliefs in human potential. The basic ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson. They focused on learning (modeling) the communication and influence patterns of successful people in various fields. Although the underlying theoretical principles have not been supported by scientific research,^[6][7] a number of its techniques are based on existing therapeutic techniques,^[6] it's early focus having been on 'modeling' successful therapists.

As a personal development system, NLP is applied in the form of group trainings, seminars, or individual client/practitioner consultations. It is also applied as a therapy in itself or as an adjunct by therapists in other disciplines. NLP practitioners deal with personal issues ranging from reframing negative beliefs, to dealing with stage fright and simple phobias, to self-help, depression, or addiction. More generally they deal with peak performance assistance in business or sports and communications and motivation. Professionals in other fields take up NLP as professional training for coaching, consulting, counseling and therapy.^[5][2]

NLP and its techniques have been widely adopted for use in motivational seminars, adult learning, and management and sales training, often being mixed with popular psychology and other applications outside of mainstream, like seduction.

[edit] Concepts and methods

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is based on the idea that with our senses we are only able to perceive a small part of the world. Our view of the world is filtered by our experience, beliefs, values and assumptions. We act and feel based on our perception of the world rather than the real world. NLP teaches that language and behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are highly structured, and that this structure can be 'modeled' or copied into a reproducible form.^[8] Using NLP a person can 'model' the more successful parts of their own behavior in order to reproduce it in areas where they are less successful or 'model' another person to effect belief and behavior changes to improve functioning. If someone excels in some activity, it can be learned how specifically they do it by observing certain important details of their behavior.^[9] NLP embodies several techniques, including hypnotic techniques, which proponents claim can affect changes in the way people think, learn and communicate.^[10] NLP is an eclectic field, often described as a 'toolbox' which has borrowed heavily from other fields in collating its presuppositions and techniques.

[edit] Internal 'maps' of the world

NLP calls each individual's perception of the world their 'map'. NLP teaches that our mind-body (neuro) and what we say (language) all interact together to form our perceptions of the world, or maps (programming). Each person's map of the world determines feelings and behavior. Therefore, impoverished - and unrealistic - maps can restrict choices and result in problems. As an approach to personal development or therapy it involves understanding that people create their own internal 'map' or world, recognizing unhelpful or destructive patterns of thinking based on impoverished maps of the world, then modifying or replacing these patterns with more useful or helpful ones. There is also an emphasis on ways to change internal representations or maps of the world in order to increase behavioral flexibility.^[8][11][9]

[edit] Modeling

Main article: Modeling (NLP)

"Modeling" in NLP is the process of adopting the behaviors, language, strategies and beliefs of another in order to 'build a model of what they do...we know that our modeling has been successful when we can systematically get the same behavioural outcome as the person we have modeled'. The 'model' is then reduced to a pattern that can be taught to others. The founders, Bandler and Grinder, started by analysing in detail and then searching for what made successful psychotherapists different from their peers. The patterns discovered were adapted for general communication and effecting change.^[8] The original models were: Milton Erickson (hypnotherapy), Virginia Satir (family therapy), and Fritz Perls (gestalt therapy). NLP modeling methods are designed to unconsciously assimilate the tacit knowledge to learn what the master is doing of which the master is not aware. As an approach to learning it can involve modeling exceptional people.^[12] As Bandler and Grinder state "the function of NLP modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful."^[8] Einspruch & Forman 1985 state that "when modeling another person the modeler suspends his or her own beliefs and adopts the structure of the physiology, language, strategies, and beliefs of the person being modeled. After the modeler is capable of behaviorally reproducing the patterns (of behavior, communication, and behavioral outcomes) of the one being modeled, a process occurs in which the modeler modifies and readopts his or her own belief system while also integrating the beliefs of the one who was modeled."^[13] Modeling is not confined to therapy, but can be, and is, applied to a broad range of human learning. Another aspect of modeling is understanding the patterns of one's own behaviors in order to 'model' the more successful parts of oneself.

[edit] Meta model

Main article: Meta model (NLP)

In NLP the Meta-model is a set of specifying questions or language patterns designed to challenge and expand the limits to a person's model or 'map' of the world. When a person speaks about a problem or situation their choice of words, (or ‘indicators’), will distort, generalize, and delete portions of their experience. By listening to and responding to these language patterns the practitioner seeks to help the client to recover the information that is under the surface of the words. A therapist who ’listens’ on the basis of their existing belief systems may miss important aspects. The NLP meta-model, being based on the verbal patterning of Fritz Perls and Virginia Satir, is intended to facilitate detecting the indicators of limiting beliefs and restrictive thinking. The questions in the meta-model are designed to bring clarity to the clients language and so to their underlying restrictive thinking and beliefs.

In business or therapy, the meta-model might be used to help a client elaborate the details of problems, proposals and objectives by asking about the important information that has been left out. For example, a person states that "we need to make a decision", a response could be to ask who will actually be doing the deciding and how exactly the process of deciding (from decision) would take place. The word 'we' does not specify who is doing the action. Also, the word 'decision' is a process which had been turned into an abstract noun. In that statement there was also an implied necessity (from need) which could also be challenged to find out if it really is a necessity.^[9]

[edit] Milton model

Main article: Milton model

The Milton model is a form of hypnotherapy based on the language patterns for hypnotic communication of Milton Erickson, a noted hypnotherapist.^[14] It has been described as "a way of using language to induce and maintain trance in order to contact the hidden resources of our personality".^[15] The Milton model has three primary aspects: Firstly, to assist in building and maintaining rapport with the client. Secondly, to overload and distract the conscious mind so that unconscious communication can be cultivated. Thirdly, to allow for interpretation in the words offered to the client.^[16]

1. Rapport

The first aspect, building rapport, or empathy, is done to achieve better communication and responsiveness. NLP teaches 'mirroring' or matching body language, posture, breathing, predicates and voice tonality. Rapport is an aspect of 'pacing' or tuning into the client or learners world. Once pacing is established, the practitioner can 'lead' by changing their behavior or perception so the other follows. O'Connor & Seymour in "Introducing NLP" describe rapport as a 'harmonious dance', an extension of natural skills, but warn against mimicry.^[15] Singer gives examples of the pantomime effect of mere mimicry by some practitioners which does not create rapport.^[3]

2. Overloading conscious attention

The second aspect of the milton model is that it uses ambiguity in language and non-verbal communication. This might also be combined with vagueness, which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct. The use of ambiguity and vagueness distracts the conscious mind as it tries to work out what is meant which gives the unconscious mind the opportunity to prosper.

3. Indirect communication

The third aspect of the milton model is that it is purposely vague and metaphoric for the purpose of accessing the unconscious mind. It is used to soften the meta model and make indirect suggestions.^[17] A direct suggestion merely states what is wanted, for example, "when you are in front of the audience you will not feel nervous". In contrast an indirect suggestion is less authoritative and leaves an opportunity for interpretation, for example, "When you are in front of the audience, you might find yourself feeling ever more confident". This example follows the indirect method leaving both the specific time and level of self-confidence unspecified. It might be made even more indirect by saying, "when you come to a decision to speak in public, you may find it appealing how your feelings have changed." The choice of speaking in front of the audience, the exact time and the likely responses to the whole process are framed but the imprecise language gives the client the opportunity to fill in the finer details.^[18]

[edit] Representational systems

Main article: Representational systems (NLP)

The notion that experience is processed by the sensory systems or representational systems, was incorporated into NLP from psychology and gestalt therapy shortly after its creation.^[8] This teaches that people perceive the world through the senses and store the information from the senses in the mind. Memories are closely linked to sensory experience. When people are processing information they see images and hear sounds and voices and process this with internally created feelings. Some representations are within conscious awareness but information is largely processed at the unconscious level. When involved in any task, such as making conversation, describing a problem in therapy, reading a book, kicking a ball or riding a horse, their representational systems, consisting of images, sounds, feelings (and possibly smell and taste) are being activated at the same time.^[7] Moreover, the way representational systems are organised and the links between them impact on behavioral performance. Many NLP techniques rely on interrupting maladaptive patterns and replacing them with more positive and creative thought patterns which will in turn impact on behavior.^[19]

Preferred representational systems

Originally NLP taught that most people had an internal preferred representational system (PRS) and preferred to process information primarily in one sensory modality. The practitioner could ascertain this from external cues such as the direction of eye movements, posture, breathing, voice tone and the use of sensory-based predicates. If a person repeatedly used predicates such as "I can see a bright future for myself", the words "see" and "bright" would be considered visual predicates. In contrast "I can feel that we will be comfortable" would be considered primarily kinesthetic because of the predicates "feel" and "comfortable". These verbal cues could also be coupled with posture changes, skin color or breathing shifts. The theory was that the practitioner by matching and working within the preferred representational system could achieve better communication with the client and hence swifter and more effective results. Many trainings and standard works still teach PRS^[15] whilst other proponents have de-emphasized the existence and relevance of PRS and instead emphasize working within all representational systems. In particular, New Code emphasizes individual calibration and sensory acuity, precluding such a rigidly specified model as the one described above.^{[citation needed]} Responding directly to sensory experience requires an immediacy which respects the importance of context. Grinder has stated that a representational system diagnosis lasts about 30 seconds.

Although there is some research that supports the notion that eye movements can indicate visual and auditory (but not kinesthetic) components of thought in that moment,^[20]the existence of a preferred representational system ascertainable from external cues (an important part of original NLP theory) was discounted by research in the 1980s.^[21][22][23]

Submodalities

Main article: Submodalities (NLP)

Submodalities are the fine details of representational systems. In the late 1970s the developers of NLP started playing around with the submodalities of representational systems involving the enhancement of visualisation techniques (common in sports psychology and meditation), by including other sensory systems. Submodalities involve the relative size, location, brightness of internal images, the volume and direction of internal voices and sounds, and the location, texture, and movement of internally created sensations.^[24] Submodalities and hypnosis became the focus of Richard Bandler's later work. A typical change process may involve manipulating the submodalities of internal representations. For example, someone may see their future as 'dark and cloudy' with associated emotions, but would seek through NLP to perceive, and feel it, as 'light and clear'. Other training exercises develop a person's ability to move around internal images, change the quality of sounds and find out how these effect the intensity of internal feelings or other submodalities. Although NLP did not discover submodalities, it appears that the proponents of NLP may have been the first to systematically use manipulation of submodalities for therapeutic or personal development purposes, particularly phobias, compulsions and addictions.^[25]

[edit] Aphorisms

Main article: Principles of NLP

• The map is not the territory
• Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes
• Behind every behavior is a positive intention
• There is no failure, only feedback
• Choice is better than no choice (and flexibility is the way one gets choice)
• The meaning of the communication is the response it produces, not the intended communication
• People already have all the resources they need to succeed
• Multiple descriptions are better than one

[edit] Techniques

Anchoring

NLP teaches that we constantly make anchors (associations) between what we see, hear and feel and our emotional states. While in an emotional state if a person is exposed to a unique stimulus (sight, sound or touch) then a connection is made between the emotion and the unique stimulus. If the unique stimulus occurs again, the emotional state will then be triggered. NLP teaches that anchors (such as a particular touch associated with a memory or state) can be deliberately created and triggered to help people access 'resourceful' or other target states.^[26]Anchoring appears to have been imported into NLP from family therapy as part of the 'model' of Virginia Satir.^[27]

Swish

The swish pattern is a process that is designed to disrupt a pattern of thought from one that used to lead to an unwanted behavior to one that leads to a desired behavior. This involves visualizing a 'cue' which leads into the unwanted behavior, such as a smokers hand moving towards the face with a cigarette in it, and reprogramming the mind to 'switch' to a visualization of the desired outcome, such as a healthy looking person, energetic and fit. In addition to visualization, auditory sound effects are often imagined to enhance the experience.^[28] Swish is one of the techniques that involves the manipulation of submodalities.

Reframing

Another technique, reframing functions through "changing the way you perceive an event and so changing the meaning. When the meaning changes, responses and behaviours will also change. Reframing with language allows you to see the world in a different way and this changes the meaning. Reframing is the basis of jokes, myths, legends, fairy tales and most creative ways of thinking."^[29] There are examples in children's literature. Pollyanna would play The Glad Game whenever she felt down about life, to remind herself of the things that she could do, and not worry about the things she couldn't. Alice Mills also says that this occurs in Hans Christian Andersen's story where to the surprise of the ugly duckling, the beautiful creatures welcome and accept him; gazing at his reflection, he sees that he too is a swan.^[30]Reframing is common to a number of therapies and was not original to NLP.^[6]

Six step reframe

An example of reframing is found in the six-step reframe which involves distinguishing between an underlying intention and the consequent behaviors for the purpose of achieving the intention by different and more successful behaviors. It is based on the notion that there is a positive intention behind all behaviors, but that the behaviors themselves may be unwanted or counterproductive in other ways. NLP uses this staged process to identify the intention and create alternative choices to satisfy that intention.

Well-formed outcome

In NLP this is one of a number of 'frames' wherein the desired state is considered as to its achievability and effect if achieved. A positive outcome must be defined by the client, be within the clients power to achieve, retain the positive products of the unwanted behaviours and produce an outcome that is appropriate for all circumstances.^[25]

Ecology

This is a frame within which the desired outcome is checked against the consequences in the clients life and relationships from all angles.

Parts integration

Parts Integration is based on the idea that different aspects of ourselves are in conflict due to different perceptions and beliefs. 'Parts integration' is the process of integrating the disparate aspects of the self by identifying and then negotiating with the separate parts to achieve resolution of internal conflict. Parts integration appears to be modeled on 'parts' from family therapy and has similarities to ego-state therapy in psychoanalysis.

VK/D

VK/D stands for 'Visual/Kinesthetic Dissociation'. This is a technique designed to eliminate bad feelings associated with past events by re-running (like a film, sometimes in reverse) an associated memory in a dissociated state. It combines elements of Eriksonian techniques, spatial sorting processes from Fritz Perls, reframing and 'changing history' techniques.^[25]

Metaphor

Largely derived from the ideas of Bateson and the techniques of Erikson, 'metaphor' in NLP ranges from simple figures of speech to allegories and stories. It tends to be used in conjunction with the skills of the Milton model to create a story which operates on many levels with the intention of communicating with the unconscious and to find and challenge basic assumptions.^[25][15]

[edit] History and development

Main article: History of neuro-linguistic programming

[edit] 1970s: Founding and early development

NLP was co-founded and developed jointly by Richard Bandler and UCSC assistant professor of linguistics John Grinder under the tutelage of noted anthropologist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s and 1970s. At that time the Californian human potential seminars were developing into a viable industry. Gregory Bateson (see Esalen Institute) was influenced by Alfred Korzybski particularly his ideas about human modeling and that 'the map is not the territory'. These ideas were adopted by Bandler and Grinder.^[9] From 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an interest in the exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H. Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic Series (1975) and Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were published using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon worked with the co-founders and separately to contribute to the development of NLP.

[edit] 1980s: New developments and scientific assessment

In the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic Programming Volume 1^[10] with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazardly by many individuals. During the 1980s John Grinder and Judith Delozier collaborated to develop a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP which attempted to restore a whole mind-body systemic approach to NLP. Richard Bandler also published new processes with submodalities and Ericksonian hypnosis as in Using Your Brain: For a Change (1984). Meanwhile Anthony Robbins who taught NLP in the late 1970s, began mass marketing products incorporating aspects of NLP (renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning). Other practitioners and trainers modified, renamed and developed their own variations of NLP. Michael Hall offered NLP with a focus on what he termed meta-states (mentally stepping back and viewing the self from a larger perspective). Tad James developed a timeline therapy consulting technique^{[citation needed]} where clients were encouraged to visualise, and perhaps also physically create the timeline of their life (or facets of it) and then alter and improve that timeline. NLP contributors Judith DeLozier, and Connirae and Steve Andreas also emerged during this time. Given the multiplicity of developers and trainers, there was to be no single definitive system of NLP.^[7]

In the late 1980s, Sharpley's (1984, 1987) research reviews in experimental counseling psychology and by the United States National Research Council gave NLP an overall negative assessment. Thereafter, except for sporadic articles on NLP in different fields, there was a marked decrease in NLP research.

[edit] 1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing

In July of 1996 after many years of legal controversy, Bandler filed a lawsuit against John Grinder et al, claiming retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and the sole right to use the term under trademark.^[31][32] Contemporaneous with Bandler's suits in the Supreme Court of the United States^{[citation needed]}, Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) successfully asked the UK High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark of "NLP", in order to clarify legally that 'NLP' was a generic term rather than intellectual property.^[33] Due to the fragmentation of NLP practice and the lack of a defining and regulating structure to oversee the rapidly growing field, it seemed for a time that NLP could be (and was) promoted as the "latest thing", a panacea, or universal miracle solution.^[34][35] Dubious models and practices burgeoned, in parallel with bona fide. For a number of these new practices, profit, marketability or New Age appeal proved a stronger motive than realism or ethics.^{[citation needed]}Despite the NLP community being splintered, most NLP material acknowledges the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s.

[edit] 2000s: Legal settlement and government regulation

In 2001, the law suits were settled with Bandler and Grinder agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Since 1978, a 20 day NLP practitioner certification program had been in existence for training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In the 1990s, following attempts to put NLP on a more formally regulated footing in the UK, other governments began certifying NLP courses and providers, such as in Australia for example, where a graduate certificatein Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).^[36]However, NLP continues to be an open field of training with no 'official' best practice. With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP",^[37] the training standards and quality differ greatly.^[38] In Europe, the European NLP therapy associationhas been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to difficulty discerning the comparative level competence, skill and attitude in different NLP trainings. According to Peter Schütz the length of training in Europe varies from 2-3 days, for the hobbyist, to 35-40 days over at least nine months to achieve a professional level of competence.^[38]

[edit] Reception

[edit] Psychological research and reviews

Main articles: NLP and science, List of studies on Neuro-linguistic programming

The broad judgement of the evidence-based psychology community is that NLP is scientifically unvalidated as to both underlying theory and effectiveness.^[21][6][22]Amidst pleas for further research there is much criticism of the failure of proponents to undertake adequate research.^[39][40]Some classify it as a pseudoscience citing that many proponents claim a scientific basis that is not supported by research or current scientific knowledge.^[41][40][4]Others have suggested that any claimed effectiveness results from its reliance on a range of therapeutic techniques gleaned from other therapies rather than any new theories or techniques.^[6]

[edit] Sharpley's review of evidence for preferred representational systems

In 1984, Sharpley undertook a literature review of 15 studies on the existence and effectiveness of preferred representational systems (PRS), an important underlying principle of NLP, and found "little research evidence supporting its usefulness as an effective counseling tool" and no reproducible support for preferred representational systems and predicate matching.^[21] Einspruch and Forman (1985) broadly agreed with Sharpley but disputed the conclusions, identifying a failure to address methodological errors in the research reviewed.^[13]They stated "NLP is far more complex than presumed by researchers, and thus, the data are not true evaluations of NLP" adding that NLP is difficult to test under the traditional counseling framework. Moreover the research lacked a necessary understanding of pattern recognition as part of advanced NLP training, there was inadequate control of context, an unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy, inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous logical mistakes in the research methodology.

Sharpley (1987) responded with a review of a further 7 studies on the same basic tenets (totalling 44 including those cited by Eispruch and Forman).^[6] This included Elich et al (1985) who tested the model that proposed a relationship between eye movements, spoken predicates, and internal imagery, and found no support for this model. They added "NLP has achieved something akin to cult status when it may be nothing more than a psychological fad" (p625)".^[23] Sharpley stated "Data collected in 44 studies clearly indicate an overwhelming finding that (a) the PRS cannot be reliably assessed; (b) when it is assessed, the PRS is not consistent over time; therefore, (c) it is not even certain that the PRS exists; and (d) matching clients' or other persons' PRS does not appear to assist counselors reliably in any clearly demonstrated manner."and "there are conclusive data from the research on NLP, and the conclusion is that the principles and procedures of NLP have failed to be supported by those data"... "certainly research data do not support the rather extreme claims that proponents of NLP have made as to the validity of its principles or the novelty of its procedures." Also that NLP may be untestable stating "perhaps NLP principles are not amenable to research evaluation. This does not necessarily reduce NLP to worthlessness for counseling practice. Rather, it puts NLP in the same category as psychoanalysis, that is, with principles not easily demonstrated in laboratory settings but, nevertheless, strongly supported by clinicians in the field."

Sharpley states that a number of NLP techniques are worthwhile or beneficial in counselling, citing predicate matching, mirroring clients behaviors, moving sensory modalities, reframing, anchoring and changing history, but that none of these techniques originated within NLP, saying "NLP may be seen as a partial compendium of rather than as an original contribution to counseling practice and, thereby, has a value distinct from the lack of research data supporting the underlying principles that Bandler and Grinder posited to present NLP as a new and magical theory". He concluded that as a counselling tool, the techniques and underlying theory unique to NLP, were both empirically unvalidated and unsupported but that "if NLP is presented as a theory-less set of procedures gathered from many approaches to counselling, then it may serve as a reference role for therapists who wish to supplement their counselling practice by what may be novel techniques to them."

[edit] Other reviews of evidence

A study by Buckner et al (1987), (after Sharpley), using trained NLP practitioners found support for the claim that specific eye movement patterns existed for visual and auditory (but not kinesthetic) components of thought, and that trained observers could reliably identify them.^[20] However, the study did not cover whether such patterns indicated a preferred representational system. They also made suggestions for further research. Krugman et al (1985) tested claims for a 'one-session' treatment of performance anxiety against another method and a control group and found no support for claims of a 'one-session' effective treatment.^[42]They argued for further research into NLP amongst other treatments that have "achieved popularity in the absence of data supporting their utility".

In a major review in 1988, Druckman and Swets NRC found that "studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique".^[7] They also concluded that matching representational systems to gain rapport was ineffective, however the idea of modeling of expert performance "merits further consideration". In 2004 Druckman said of the 1988 study "Our experiences with NLP led to two different conclusions. On the one hand, we found little if any evidence to support NLP’s assumptions or to indicate that it is effective as a strategy for social influence. It assumes that by tracking another’s eye movements and language, an NLP trainer can shape the person’s thoughts, feelings, and opinions (Dilts, 1983). There is no scientific support for these assumptions. On the other hand, we were impressed with the modeling approach used to develop the technique. The technique was developed from careful observations of the way three master psychotherapists conducted their sessions, emphasizing imitation of verbal and nonverbal behaviors (Druckman & Swets, 1988, Chapter 8). This then led the committee to take up the topic of expert modeling in the second phase of its work."^[43] The follow up study on expertise by Swets and Bjork (1991) concentrated on cognitive apprenticeship, but NLP was not included except by way of acknowledgment for the idea of modeling.^[44]

Thereafter it would appear that although individual studies continue to be undertaken in a variety of fields, no further major research reviews have been undertaken and NLP was dropped from the experimental psychology research stream.^[45] Similarly in the field of psychotherapy it is stated that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy".^[46]

[edit] Wider critiques from psychologists

In 1990 Beyerstein categorised NLP as a ‘neuromythology’, 'New Age' and pseudoscience.^[41] Beyerstein asserts that "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies." With reference to all the 'neuromythologies' covered in his article, including NLP, he states "In the long run perhaps the heaviest cost extracted by neuromythologists is the one common to all pseudosciences—deterioration in the already low levels of scientific literacy and critical thinking in society. " That judgement has been supported by others from the mainstream, empirically based psychology community, such as Lilienfield (2002),^[40] Drenth (1999)^[47]and (2003)^[48] and Devilly (2005)^[4]in peer-reviewed journals, and by commentators on the fields of psychology, psychotherapy and counselling such as Eisner in 'The Death of Psychotherapy',^[39] and Singer and Lalich in 'Crazy Therapies'.^[3] Devilly (2005) states that "at the time of its introduction, NLP was heralded as a breakthrough in therapy and advertisements for training workshops, videos and books began to appears in trade magazines. The workshops provided certification... However, controlled studies shed such a poor light on the practice, and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers began to question the wisdom of researching the area further and even suggested that NLP was an untestable theory"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets of the human resource community. The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains".

[edit] Ongoing research

Examples of ongoing research include the following: an empirical study using a heuristic qualitative methodology in which the submodality change process was tested for treating grief and mourning and which suggested that manipulating certain submodalities can help the subject shift into more resourceful state and speed the healing process,^[49] a study incorporating a number of NLP behaviour change techniques (anchoring, isomorphic metaphor, goal setting) into a program for learning about and preventing the spread of AIDS which recommended that these tools be promoted and adopted internationally,^[50] and a review of several small studies on the effectiveness of Visual/Kinesthetic Dissociation (V/KD) which suggested that V/KD, although currently at an experimental level of efficacy and in need of further well-designed empirical study, may be a promising treatment for at least some forms of Posttraumatic Disorder.^[51]

[edit] Mental health practice

See also: Therapeutic use of NLP  and Scientist-Practitioner Model of Clinical Psychology

NLP has been coordinated within some industry associations, psychotherapy associations, and has been used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies.^[52] NLP has remained an eclectic field with no inherent controls over training or a professional code of ethics. According to Schutz in his guide to NLP training, training varies from very short, esoteric or hyped-up power courses at one extreme to 9 months of professional training under licensed psychotherapists or the equivalent. He advises caution in selection.^[5][34] Clinical psychologists have identified characteristics that help to separate unvalidated or scientifically unsupported approaches to psychotherapy from those based on the scientific method. Opining that proof of the validity of new practices falls on the proponents of these practices, evidence-based psychologist Lilienfield expresses concern that largely untested treatments, amongst which he includes NLP, comprise a major proportion of the interventions delivered by mental health professionals. He raises concerns about the public's overconfidence in mental health professions and the lack of scientific foundation for these professions.^[53] Evidence-based psychologist Beyerstein has expressed concern about the spread of misconceptions about how the mind works.^[41] Singer criticises NLP as one of a number of 'quick-fix' techniques, unsupported by scientific evaluation.^[3]According to Eisner, NLP is based on some of Freud's most flawed thinking, and continues "There was great initial enthusiasm, but as time passed, it appears the so-called effective results have diminished or disappeared".^{[39][dubious — see talk page]}

[edit] Human resources

NLP has influenced some corporate executive coaches,^[54] who provide one-on-one training and collaborative relationships to executive interested in development skills in career or business and may help resolve related personal issues.^{[citation needed]}

Skinner and Stephens (2003) explored the use the model of representational systems in television marketing and communications.^[55]

A number of UK NHS regional authorities use NLP for staff training at various levels, for training in rapport and communication in the workplace and with patients [3]p.28 [4]p 27[5]p.27 and for personal development in management training.[6][7]The Society of Medical NLP runs courses for health professionals for techniques to be used in clinical practice in consultations. These techniques were originally based on modeling Doctors who communicate successfully with patients.[8]Their courses are accredited for PDP and CPD (formerly Post Graduate Education Allowance).[9]

Human resource professional Von Bergen considers NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training.^{[45][56][citation needed]}.

[edit] Commercialization, manipulation and persuasion

Main article: Persuasion uses of NLP

Pieter Drenth (1999) having put NLP in the category of pseudo science states "Partly it is a shrewd commercial formula, and the marketing. Just take the name. Why not PQR or BYG (believe in your own goal) or something like that?" and goes on to say "but even for new theories and hypothetical frameworks, the requirement still holds that they should be scrutinized and tested on logical grounds and, in the case of empirical or experimental science, on the basis of empirical or experimental evidence".^[47]

In his book 'Recovery from Cults' Michael Langone states "We know that NLP is also used by some very aggressive cults because the NLP method can be used by such groups to instill a reliance upon the cult, and provides a conditioning method to further induce compliance." He describes NLP as "a tool for generating change for changes sake" .^[57]

Freelance writer Steve Salerno states that Anthony Robbins "made NLP his own, refining it and personalizing it into what he christened "neuroassociative conditioning" (NAC). Salerno goes on to claim of Robbins (and other lifestyle trainers or systems) that he "actually fans the fires of discontent, making people feel impaired or somehow deficient as a prelude to (supposedly) curing them".^[58] O'Connor and Seymour in "Introducing NLP" state NAC is "...not strictly NLP.".^[15]

[edit] Popular culture and media

In 2003 English psychological illusionist Derren Brown performed a stunt on national TV where he played Russian Roulette with 5 other players. Some suggested the stunt's success was due to Brown using NLP techniques in order manipulate the outcome.^[59] Derren Brown (2000) says "Having trained with the highly likeable founder of NLP, I find it a mixture of sensible and appealing methods for dealing with low-level pathologies such as phobias and fears on the one hand, and sheer daft nonsense and massive rhetoric on the other... There is no doubt that, to a point, much of this is well observed... But the idea triggered in me an interest in exploring these kinds of signals, and now I am pushing my performance closer into these areas."^[60]

In 2005, celebrity hypnotist and television personality Paul McKenna was shown applying neuro-linguistic programming and other techniques on his Sky One show, 'I Can Change Your Life' to assist people with phobias, such as agoraphobia and addictions to gambling and shopping. In 2006, another Sky One programme, 'I Can Make You Thin', featured Richard Bandler and used NLP among other techniques to help people lose weight. [10]

Journalist Satham Sanghera wrote in a 2005 in a Financial Times news column that while some "believe that the continuing popularity of NLP... is an indication of its effectiveness" and ability to help in a wide spectrum of areas, he noted others think the success of NLP is "an example of mumbo jumbo triumphing over science" and that "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of popular psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions"^{[2][dubious — see talk page]}

[edit] Classifying NLP

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See also: NLP and science and List of studies on Neuro-linguistic programming

[edit] Science and pseudoscience

Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier claim "NLP is rooted in the synthesis of three areas of modern science: neurophysiology, linguistics and cybernetics (computer programming)."^[25] Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) make suggestions about what needs to be done next to "improve the practice [of NLP] and take its rightful place as a scientifically based endeavor with its precise focus on one of the extremes of human behavior: excellence and the high performers who actually do it."^[61] They ask those interested to work with researchers in cognitive linguistics and neuroscience to begin to improve the relationship with those fields. O'Connor and Seymour, in "Introducing NLP" (2002), originally published in 1990 and endorsed by both Dilts and Grinder, state "NLP is the art and science of personal excellence.... Science because there is a method and process for discovering the patterns used by outstanding individuals in any field to achieve outstanding results. This process is called modelling,...".^[15] However, psycholinguist Willem Levelt (1996) states "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises."... "NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming".^[47][62] Cognitive neuroscience researcher Michael C Corballis (1999) agrees and says that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability."^[63] Drenth (2003) uses the "movement known by the name NLP" to illustrate his descriptions of pseudoscience, stating "Unlike diagnosis, prediction of human performance or behavior, and assessment, therapy is not an (applied) scientific activity. Criteria for therapeutic activity is effectiveness, not verity;" ... "But what brings some of these therapeutic approaches into the category of pseudoscience is the claim that their presumptions are predicated on scientific understanding and scientific evidence."^[47][48] Psychologist Margaret Singer (1996) criticizes NLP promoters and advertisers for continuing to "call the originators 'scientists' and to use such terms a 'science', 'technology' and 'hi-tech psychology' in describing NLP"(p.172).^[64]

[edit] Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1960s and has continued as a reaction to positivist and scientific approaches to the mind. It views the usage of quantitative research methods ('conclusive') in the study of the human mind and behaviour as misguided and advises qualitative research methods ('exploratory'). It stresses a phenomenological view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting qualitative research methods.

Grinder and Delozier (1984) argue that the epistemology of Gregory Bateson (and NLP) attempts to synthesize the overdrawn positions of empiricists and idealists.^[65]

Jaap Hollander (1999) in making a number of recommendations for the field of NLP to develop better relationships with science, states that "qualitative scientific inquiry bears a striking resemblance with the process of modelling in NLP. So, NLP, after all, may not be as unscientific as it is often made out to be. Modeling, like qualitative research, uses data from naturalistic settings. Modeling also uses inductive analysis of the data. Rather than testing for the presence of predetermined patterns, the modeler looks for patterns in the observations of the expert, patterns that he or she had not consciously formulated beforehand."^[66] The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist and phenomenological philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence.

Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier (2000) say "In considering NLP as a science however, it is important to recognise that the epistemology of NLP is more 'subjective' and 'systematically' oriented than many 'hard' sciences, which tend to be more 'objective' and 'deterministic'. That is the patterns explored and identified by NLP are often necessarily contextual and influenced by the perceptual filters of the observer." ... "As a scientific approach, then, NLP tends to be more 'qualitative' than 'quantitative' and more 'structuralist' than 'materialistic'" ...^[25]

In the introduction to The Structure of Magic Series, Gregory Bateson says that Bandler and Grinder "create the beginnings of an appropriate theoretical base for the describing of human interaction." Bateson goes on to say that "The behavioral sciences, and especially psychiatry, have always avoided theory, and it is easy to make a list of the various maneuvers whereby theory could be avoided". Grinder and Bandler "have succeeded in making linguistics into a base for theory and simultaneously into a tool for therapy." ... "We already knew that most of the premises of individual psychology were useless, and we knew that we ought to classify modes of communicating." ... "Grinder and Bandler have succeeded in making explicit the syntax of how people avoid change and, therefore, how to assist them in changing. Here they focus on verbal communication" ... and "develop a general model of communication and change involving the other modes of communication which human beings use to represent and communicate their experience."^[9]

[edit] Technology

NLP critic Margaret Singer quotes Bandler as saying the term NLP was "phrased on the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his occupation." (p169). She also quotes Bandler as saying "it wasn't my job to do theory" and Tony Robbins as saying" NLP is heavily pragmatic: if a tool works, it's included in the model, even if there's no theory to back it up....None of the current NLP developers have done any research to prove their models correct. The party line is 'pretend it works, try it, and notice the results you get. If you don't get the result you want, try something else'"(p.172)."^[3]

Labouchere (2004) states that there are multiple definitions of NLP. Bandler defines NLP as "an attitude and a methodology which leaves behind a trail of techniques" whereas Grinder defines NLP as "the study of excellence and how to reproduce it".^[67] Labouchere states that "NLP has a very pragmatic, applied focus on what is helpful, what works and how to replicate it (Bandler & Grinder, 1990). While it draws on and shares common ground with ‘mainstream’ cognitive psychology, from its inception in the 1970s it has continued to develop, refine, and apply its own unique range of concepts, models and techniques."

Sharpley (1987) states that a number of NLP techniques are worthwhile or beneficial in counselling, citing predicate matching, mirroring clients behaviors, moving sensory modalities, reframing, anchoring and changing history, but that none of these techniques originated within NLP, saying "NLP may be seen as a partial compendium of rather than as an original contribution to counseling practice and, thereby, has a value distinct from the lack of research data supporting the underlying principles that Bandler and Grinder posited to present NLP as a new and magical theory".^[6]

NLP teaches that each learner is a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds and encourages students take responsibility for their own states, and learning experience.^[68] According to Craft, "Neuro-linguistic Programming is best understood as a strategy which at first sight appears to draw on constructivist theories of learning. However, I have raised some problems in both the strategy itself (first), the lack of awareness of learning and performance styles, in that although it comes from the perspective that individuals respond uniquely to the world, it nevertheless offers an experiential approach to learning"^[68]

In response to Craft, NLP academics Tosey and Mathison (2003) expressed NLP in terms of the cybernetic epistemology of Gregory Bateson stating, "Early statements from the originators of NLP dismissed interest in articulating or acquiring theory, for example; `We have no idea about the "real" nature of things, and we're not particularly interested in what's "true". The function of modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful.' (Bandler and Grinder 1979 p.7). Bandler and Grinder's intent, perhaps, was to stay close to experience and avoid abstract discussion about truths of human experience. It seems that this stance has persisted, even if it is not shared by all leading NLP practitioners. We suggest that NLP may be regarded as a transdisciplinary (Gibbons et al 1994), in the sense that it draws on sources from academe and from elsewhere, and has been generated through application more than being deduced from axioms." They go on to state "It seems unarguable that to become regarded as academically credible there is a need for NLP to be more thoroughly theorized, particularly to consider how it relates to and differs from existing theoretical perspectives such as semiotics, phenomenology, discourse analysis, and more." Paul Tosey, University of Surrey, is the director of research project into the theory and application of NLP in teaching theory. Furthermore Mathison and Tosey (2002) add that this approach to learning and development appears similar in theory to Lev Vygotsky and constructivist learning theory and unrelated to computer programming or neuroscience.^[24]

[edit] Religiosity and spirituality

Sociologist and Christian scholar, Stephen J. Hunt states that NLP "is a technique rather than an organised religion and is used by several different human potential movements" yet that it has an "implied religiosity".(p.195).^[69] Regarding spiritual practices, Dilts states that John Grinder was influenced by Carlos Castaneda's Don Juan in developing the double hypnotic induction, perceptual positions and rechanneling of attention and energy to more appropriate contexts.^[25] At the same time Grinder contends that any venture into personal beliefs of "spirituality" in psychotherapy or NLP would be an ethical violation.^[61]

David V. Barrett (2001) in his work The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions, describes NLP as a technique or series of techniques, or a process, and notes it is sometimes used by some religious sects. He states that while "the brief biographies of NLP Trainers usually give the names of the people they have trained under... could be seen as similar to new eastern origin religions tracing themselves back through a progression of gurus", and that NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are sometimes found in some religions, "overall the balance comes down against it being labeled as a religion."^[70]

[edit] See also

• Gestalt therapy
• Hypnotherapy
• Family systems therapy
• The map is not the territory
• Provocative therapy
• Cognitive science
• Persuasion
• Large Group Awareness Training

[edit] Notes and references

[edit] Further reading

Main article: Neuro-linguistic programming: Bibliography

• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979) Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Real People Press. 149 pages. ISBN 0911226192
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1975) The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy Science and Behavior Books. 198 pages. ISBN 0831400447
• O'Connor, J., Seymour, J. Dilts, R. (foreword), Grinder, J. (preface) (1995) Introducing Neuro-linguistic Programming: The New Psychology of Personal Excellence Aquarian Press. 224 pages. ISBN 1852740736
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1981) Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning Real People Press. ISBN 0911226257
• Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson Volume 1 ISBN 091699001X
• Dilts, R. (1990) Changing belief systems with NLP Meta Publications. ISBN 0916990249
• Bandler, R., Andreas, S. (ed) and Andreas, C. (ed) (1985) Using Your Brain-for a Change ISBN 0911226273
• Grinder, M. Lori Stephens (Ed) (1991) Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt ISBN 1555520367
• Laborde, G. (1987) Influencing with Integrity: Management Skills for Communication and Negotiation
• Dilts, R., Hallbom, T., Smith, S. (1990) Beliefs: Pathways to Health & Well-being
• Satir, V., Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Changing with Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 083140051X

[edit] External links

[edit] Skeptics

• Carroll, Robert T. The Skeptic's Dictionary