Θρησκευτικές ποινές

Από τη Βικιπαίδεια, την ελεύθερη εγκυκλοπαίδεια

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Θρησκευτικές ποινές είναι οι περιορισμοί που θέτονται από τις θρησκευτικές κοινότητες όταν ένα μέλος ή μια ομάδα μελών της δεν ανταποκρίνονται σε ουσιώδεις επιταγές της. Οι καταδίκες και οι κυρώσεις που έπονται μπορεί περιλαμβάνουν μεταξύ άλλων την απομάκρυνση, τη διακοπή της επικοινωνίας, τη διαπόμπευση ή ακόμη και την θανάτωση του μέλους ανάλογα με την θρησκευτική ομάδα ή κοινότητα. Η πρακτική αυτή αποτελεί θρησκευτική καταδίκη με σκοπό την αποστέρηση ή την παύση της ιδιότητας του μέλους σε μια θρησκευτική κοινότητα.

Θρησκευτικοί όροι όπως αφορισμός, ακοινωνησία, ανάθεμα, επιτίμιο, αποκοπή, "αποκλεισμός από την (επι)κοινωνία" (excommunicatio), "καθιστώ κάποιον αποσυνάγωγο" (χέρεμ), τακφίρ και γιάτι (ή βάρνα) είναι μερικοί μόνο από τους όρους που χρησιμοποιούνται για να περιγράψουν ελαφρύτερους ή σοβαρότερους περιορισμούς που βρίσκονται σε χρήση από ποικίλα θρησκεύματα.

[Επεξεργασία] Χριστιανισμός

[Επεξεργασία] Ανάθεμα

'''Η Βιβλική βάση του αφορισμού ή της αποκοπής από το σώμα της εκκλησίας είναι το ἀνάθεμα'. Οι σχετικές αναφορές βρίσκονται στην Επιστολή Προς Γαλάτας 1:8, ΝΜΒ: «Αλλά κι αν εμείς ή ακόμη κι ένας άγγελος από τον ουρανό σάς κηρύξει ένα ευαγγέλιο διαφορετικό από το ευαγγέλιο που σας κηρύξαμε, αυτός να είναι ανάθεμα!» Επίσης, στην Πρώτη Επιστολή προς Κορινθίους 16:22 αναφέρεται: «Όποιος δεν αγαπάει τον Κύριο Ιησού Χριστό ας είναι χωρισμένος από το σώμα της εκκλησίας». Το τελευταίο μέρος του εδαφίου άλλες μεταφράσεις το αποδίδουν «ας είναι καταραμένος».

Στην πρωτοχριστιανική εκκλησία, το ανάθεμα αποτελούσε μορφή ακραίας θρησκευτικής κύρωσης, πέρα από τον αφορισμό. Το παλαιότερο καταγραμμένο παράδειγμα ήταν το 306. Η Ρωμαιοκαθολική και η Ορθόδοξη εκκλησία χρησιμοποιούν ακόμα αυτή την κύρωση, αν και σπάνια εναντίον ενός ατόμου. Κάποιες σύγχρονες εκκλησίες αναφέρονται σε οποιαδήποτε μορφή αποκλεισμού ως ανάθεμα.

[Επεξεργασία] Η άποψη του Καλβίνου

Ο Ιωάννης Καλβίνος στο έργο του Θεσμοί της Χριστιανικής Θρησκείας, έγραψε (4.12.10):

Διότι όταν ο Σωτήρας υπόσχεται πως όσα οι δούλοι του δένουν επί της γης θα είναι δεμένα στον ουρανό, (Κατά Ματθαίον 18: 18), περιορίζει την εξουσία του δένειν στην κρίση της Εκκλησίας, η οποία δεν καταδικάζει τους αφορισμένους σε αιώνιο όλεθρο και καταδίκη, αλλά τους διαβεβαιώνει, όταν αυτοί μαθαίνουν ότι η ζωή και τα έργα τους είναι καταδικασμένα, ότι η αιώνια καταδίκη θα επακολουθήσει, αν δε μετανοήσουν. Ο αφορισμός βάλλει και καταφέρεται ενάντια στις συμπεριφορές του αφοριζομένου. Και μολονότι ... τιμωρεί, αποσκοπεί στη σωτηρία του, προειδοποιώντας τον για τη μέλλουσα καταστροφή του. Αν αυτό επιτευχθεί, πρέπει να επέρχεται καταλλαγή και αποκατάσταση της κοινωνίας ... Κατά συνέπεια αν και η υπακοή μας προς την Εκκλησία δε μας επιτρέπει να διατηρούμε οικείες και φιλικές σχέσεις με αφορισθέντες, ωστόσο οφείλουμε να επιδιώκουμε με κάθε τρόπο να τους νουθετούμε και να τους επαναφέρουμε στην κοινωνία και την ενότητα της Εκκλησίας: όπως άλλωστε λέει ο Απόστολος Παύλος, "Όμως μην τον αντιμετωπίζετε σαν εχθρό, αλλά να τον νουθετείτε σαν αδελφό" (Β' Θεσσαλονικείς 3: 15). Αν δεν τηρήσουμε αυτή τη φιλανθρωπία τόσο ως ιδιώτες όσο και δημόσια, υπάρχει ο κίνδυνος, η υπακοή μας να εκφυλιστεί σε καταστροφή.

Ορισμένες Μεταρρυθμισμένες Εκκλησίες δε χρησιμοποιούν τον αφορισμό (ή άλλα ελάσσονα μέτρα επιβολής εκκλησιαστικής πειθαρχίας), μολονότι αυτό συχνά απαιτείται από τους καταστατικούς κανονισμούς τους.

[Επεξεργασία] Ανατολική Ορθόδοξη Εκκλησία

Στην Ανατολική Ορθόδοξη Εκκλησία, excommunication is the exclusion of a member from the Eucharist. It is not expulsion from the Church. This can happen due to minor reasons like not having confessed within that year or be imposed as part of a penitential period. It is generally done with the goal of eventually restoring the member to full communion. The Orthodox Church does have a means of expulsion, by pronouncing anathema, but this is reserved only for acts of serious and unrepentant heresy. Even in that case, the individual is not "damned" by the Church but is instead left to his own devices. But, according to some theological sects, the person who receives anathema by the Church, is condemned to Hell and will be unable to rot in their grave.

[Επεξεργασία] Καθαίρεση

Η καθαίρεσις αποτελεί την εσχάτη των ποινών πού επιβάλλεται από τα εκκλησιαστικά δικαστήρια σε κληρικούς των τριών βαθμών. Ο κληρικός που τιμωρείται με την ποινή αυτή επανέρχεται στην τάξη που ανήκε προηγούμενως, είτε ως λαϊκός είτε ως μοναχός.

Προσδιορίζονται 76 παραπτώματα τα οποία τιμωρούνται με καθαίρεση, τα κυριώτερα από τα οποία είναι τα εξής: αίρεση, γάμος μετά τη χειροτονία, διγαμία, εισπήδηση σε ξένη μητρόπολη, εγκατάλειψη της ενορίας ή της επισκοπής, επιορκία, ιεροσυλία, κοσμικά αξιώματα, μέθη, μοιχεία, πορνεία, σιμωνία, και φόνος.

[Επεξεργασία] Ρωμαιοκαθολική Εκκλησία

Excommunication is the most serious ecclesiastical penalty for Roman Catholics. While a person excommunicated is not damned by the Church, the person is barred from participating in its communal life. The outward sign of this loss of community involves barring the person from participating in liturgy, i.e., receiving the Eucharist or the other Sacraments. Certain other rights and privileges normally resulting from membership in the church are revoked, such as holding ecclesiastical office. Excommunication is intended to be only temporary, a "medicinal" procedure intended to guide the offender toward repentance. In the Roman Catholic Church excommunication is usually terminated by repentance, confession, and absolution. Offenses which incur excommunication must be absolved by a local ordinary (bishop or vicar general) or a priest whom the local ordinary designates.

The Roman Catholic Church has an extensive history of the uses of excommunication, especially during the Middle Ages. Popes and archbishops used excommunication as a weapon against high ranking officials and kings who fell out of favor with the Catholic Church. Perceived abuse of this power, along with some other factors, led to the rise of the Protestant Reformation. With the rise of the idea of separation of church and state excommunication no longer has any civil effect.

Βλέπε επίσης Κατάλογος ατόμων που αφορίστηκαν από την Ρωαμιοκαθολική Εκκλησία.

[Επεξεργασία] Αφορισμός

Ως αφορισμός ορίζεται η εκκλησιαστική ποινή με την οποία ένα μέλος της Ορθόδοξης ή Ρωμαιοκαθολικής εκκλησίας αποκλείεται εντελώς από τη χριστιανική κοινότητα, ως τιμωρία για τα πολύ σοβαρά αμαρτήματα στα οποία περιέπεσε^[1].

Μάλιστα, για τους Ρωμαιοκαθολικούς υφίσταται ο αυτόματος αφορισμός (Latæ Sententiæ) όταν διαπραχθούν ορισμένες παραβάσεις όπως οι εξής:

Αποστασία,
Αίρεση,
Σχίσμα,
Βεβήλωση της θείας κοινωνίας,
Σωματική βία εναντίον του Πάπα,
Απόπειρα απόδοσης μυστηριακής άφεσης σε σύντροφο σε μοιχεία,
Χειροτονία επισκόπου χωρίς παπική έγκριση (π.χ. όλοι οι επίσκοποι της ελεγχόμενης από την κυβέρνηση Κινεζικής Πατριωτικής Εκκλησίας),
Αποκάλυψη λεπτομερειών από τη διαδικασία του Κογκλαβίου από πρόσωπα παρόντα στο Κογκλάβιο, που όμως δε μετέχουν ως εκλέκτορες
Σιμωνιακή απόδοση του παπικού αξιώματος,
Παραβίαση του απορρήτου της εξομολόγησης από ιερέα ή επίσκοπο, και
Πραγματοποίηση πλήρους άμβλωσης.

Εάν η τέλεση της παράβασης δε διαπιστωθεί από τοπικό ιεράρχη ή εκκλησιαστικό δικαστήριο, η υποχρέωση τήρησης του αφορισμού εναπόκειται στον ίδιο τον αφοριζόμενο (Κανών 1331 §1). Έτσι, μολονότι ένας αφορισμένος απαγορεύεται να κατέχει εκκλησιαστικά αξιώματα, ο αφορισμένος διατηρεί τα αξιώματά του και όλες οι σχετικές πράξεις του είναι νομικά έγκυρες, εφόσον δεν έχει υπάρξει δίκη και διαπίστωση της πράξης του. Άπαξ και συμβεί αυτό, κάθε επακόλουθη πράξη του προσώπου αυτού είναι άκυρη και το ίδιο εκπίπτει του αξιώματός του (Κανών 1331 §2).

Το δικαίωμα άρσης του αφορισμού που επισύρουν οι παραβάσεις 4 και 8 διατηρεί μόνη η Αγία Έδρα, είτε από τον Πάπα προσωπικά είτε διά του αποστολικού επιτετραμμένου για τους μετανοούντες.

Κάποιες εκκλησιαστικές παραβάσεις επισύρουν αυτόματη Απαγόρευση, η οποία για ένα λαϊκό ισοδυναμεί ουσιαστικά με αφορισμό. Για λεπτομέρειες δείτε το σχετικό άρθρο.

[Επεξεργασία] Αμενικοί (Άμις)

Πρότυπο:Pov Jakob Ammann, founder of the Amish, believed that excommunication, should be regularly and systematically practiced among the Swiss Anabaptists as it was in the north and as it was outlined in the Dordrecht Confession to which they were supposed to adhere to (Hostetler, 1993 : 33, 35). Most more moderate Amish groups have become less strict in recent years in their application of excommunication as a discipline (Hostetler, 1993: 86). This has lead to splits in several communities, an example of which is the Swartzedruber Amish who split from the main body of Old Order Amish because of the latter's practice of lifting the ban from members who later join other churches. In general, the Amish will excommunicate baptised members for failure to abide by their Ordnung as it is interpreted by the local Bishop if certain repeat violations of the Ordnung occur.

Excommunication results in shunning, the severity of which depends on many factors, such as the family, the local community as well as the type of Amish. Some Amish communities cease shunning after one year if the person joins another church later on, especially if it is another Mennonite church, even if that church is much more liberal (Hostetler, 1993: 86). The relatively well-known Ruth Irene Garrett attempted unsuccessfully to have her ban lifted with membership in a Lutheran Church (Garrett, 2003: 122-128).

Amish shunning can be quite severe, especially if people rely on business with Amish clients. Some feel that they must move away from their families, especially those who were baptised young and leave the church while still living with their parents at the time of their excommunication (Hostetler, 1993: 86). Among certain groups, there are ways around shunning. For example, a shunned person is not permitted to eat at the same table as a church member, however it is not unheard of for two tables to be set beside each other with a tablecloth overtop in order to abide by the shunning rule while at the same time eat with the person shunned (see Amish).

[Επεξεργασία] Μεννονίτες

Πρότυπο:POV-section At the beginning of their history (around the time of the Reformation) Mennonite policy was to socially shun those who had broken away, or been removed from the Mennonite fellowship. By the time the Mennonites first came to America hardly any Mennonites followed this practice, (why is there no mention of this in the Main Mennonite article?) and banned members were only removed from communion (MacMaster, 1985: 194). In most Mennonite churches this is true today, and the most severe sanction that is usually applied to a member is loss of church membership. A conference (group of churches) may also impose excommunication in extreme cases, effectively denying membership of all churches in the conference. The sanction was used relatively frequently in early Mennonite history, and has been used by some Mennonite groups against other Mennonite groups in the past. Some groups imposed excommunication on people who joined the military (a defiance of core Mennonite beliefs) during the twentieth century.

At the church level such a sanction is rare and is carried out only after many attempts at reconciliation and on someone who is flagrantly and repeatedly violating standards of behavior that the church expects. Occasionally excommunication is also carried against those who repeatedly question the church's behavior and/or who genuinely differ with the church's theology as well, although in almost all cases the dissenter will leave the church before any discipline need be invoked. In either case, the church will attempt reconciliation with member in private, first one on one and then with a few church leaders. Only if the church's reconciliation attempts are unsuccessful, the church leadership formally revokes church membership. Members of the church generally pray for the excluded member.

Forced excommunication is extremely rare in moderate and progressive Mennonite churches. Most congregations go for many decades without ever excluding a member. However, there is reason to conclude from comments made by the minister of the progressive and excommunicated Germantown Mennonite Church that excommunication is being handled covertly now so that excommunication can be done with no perception of force when in fact it is forced excommunication just the same. The Mennonite Church USA denomination has more recently used excommunication against member churches for welcoming homosexuals as members.

Some Mennonite branches continue to practice shunning, in which church members are disallowed social contact with the banned member. The degree of contact permitted, and the degree to which the shunning principle is followed in practice, varies.

Church of God in Christ, Mennonite Mennonites also known as Holdeman Mennonites, can excommunicate for failure to have 'the right spirit' among other things and shuns excommunicated members.

Among most Old Order Mennonite congregations an Old Order member who disobeys the Ordnung (church regulations) must meet with the leaders of the church. If a church regulation is broken a second time there is a confession in the church. Those who refuse to confess are excommunicated (Scott, 1996:59). However upon later confession, the church member will be reinstated. An excommunicated member is placed under the ban. This person is not banned from eating with their family (Scott, 1996:59). However, sometimes the shunning can damage relationships. Excommunicated persons can still have business dealings with church members and can maintain sexual relations with a marriage partner, who may still be a church member (Scott, 1996:59).

[Επεξεργασία] Χουτερίτες

Πρότυπο:POV-section The separatist, communal, and self-contained Hutterites also use excommunication as discipline and shunning as form of punishment. Since Hutterites have communal ownership of goods, the effects of excommunication can be particularly devstating leaving the excluded member without assets of any kind. One Hutterite colony in Manitoba, Canada had a protracted dispute when leaders attempted to force the departure of a group that had been excommunicated but would not leave. About a dozen lawsuits in both Canada and the United States were filed between the various Hutterite factions and colonies concerning excommunication, shunning, the legitimacy of leadership and communal property rights.

[Επεξεργασία] Εκκλησία του Ιησού Χριστού και των Αγίων των Τελευταίων Ημερών

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ("LDS Church"; see also Mormon) practices excommunication (as well as the lesser sanctions of disfellowshipping and probation) as penalties for those who commit serious sins.

The decision to excommunicate a Melchizedek Priesthood holder is generally the province of the leadership of a Stake, which consists of several local wards. Excommunications occur only after a formal "church disciplinary council" (what was once called a "church court," the change was apparently meant to avoid talking about guilt and instead focus on repentance).

The procedure followed by a church disciplinary council is described in church handbooks and the Doctrine and Covenants Section 102:9-18. For a regular member, the bishop (leader of the ward) determines whether excommunication is needed. He does this in consultation with his two counselors, but there is no vote: the bishop makes the determination in a spirit of prayer. That decision is appealable to the stake leadership.

A Melchizedek Priesthood holder, however, starts at the stake level. There, the stake presidency and Stake High Council handle matters. Six of the twelve members of the high council are assigned to represent the member in question to "prevent insult or injustice." The member is invited to attend, but the council can go forward without him. Again, the members of the high council consult with the stake president, but the decision about which discipline is necessary is the stake president's alone. Officially, it is possible to appeal this decision to the Church's world leaders.

Additionally, the Church is led by a President, two counselors, and a Council of Twelve Apostles. If one of the Church's world leaders (including these fifteen) is accused of sin, this presidency takes the place of the stake president, and the apostles take the place of the stake high council. That decision is unappealable.

Those who are excommunicated lose the right to take the sacrament and lose their church membership. Notices of excommunication may be made public--especially in cases of apostasy, where members could be misled--but the specific reasons for individual excommunications are typically kept confidential.

Persons who have been excommunicated are welcome and encouraged to attend church meetings, but cannot participate in the meetings, cannot enter LDS temples, or wear temple garments. Excommunicated members may be re-baptized after a waiting period and sincere repentance, as judged by a series of interviews with church leaders.

Excommunication is generally reserved for what are seen as the most serious sins, including committing serious crimes; committing adultery, polygamy, or homosexual conduct; apostasy, teaching false doctrines, or openly criticizing LDS leaders. In the case of apostasy, false teachings, and being openly critical of LDS leadership, excommunication is often a last resort after repeated warnings.

As a lesser penalty, Latter-day Saints may be disfellowshipped, which does not include a loss of church membership. Once disfellowshipped, persons may not take the sacrament or enter LDS temples, nor may they participate in other church meetings, though disfellowshipped persons may attend most LDS functions and are permitted to wear temple garments. For lesser sins, or in cases where the sinner appears truly repentant, individuals may be put on probation for a time, which means that further sin will result in disfellowshipment or excommunication.

Some critics have charged that LDS leaders have used the threat of excommunication to silence or punish LDS researchers who disagree with established policy and doctrine, or who study or discuss controversial subjects. A notable case is the so-called September Six.

However, LDS policy dictates that local leaders are responsible for excommunication, without influence from General Church leadership, arguing this policy is evidence against systematic persecution of scholars. In contrast, some claim that LDS leadership keeps watch on certain apostate groups such as Sunstone and the message boards at exmormon.org and report on speakers (and topics) to their local leaders. Apologists further suggest that some alleged excommunications never take place, or are used as a publicity stunt. They cite the case of Thomas Murphy, who they say only claimed he was threatened with excommunication or other disciplinary action because of his research of how DNA research challenges LDS teachings. (see Archaeology and the Book of Mormon). Recent evidence, such as witnesses at the meeting with the stake president and the letter requesting Murphy's attendance at the court, refute this claim that the disciplinary action was simply a publicity stunt.

[Επεξεργασία] Μάρτυρες του Ιεχωβά

Βλέπε επίσης Πρακτικές των Μαρτύρων του Ιεχωβά

Jehovah's Witnesses practice something similar to excommunication—using the term disfellowshipping—in cases where a member violates Bible requirements as understood by Jehovah's Witnesses.

When a member confesses or is accused of a serious sin, the elders of the congregation form a judicial committee of three to five local elders. This committee will investigate the case and determine guilt, and if the person is deemed guilty, the committee will determine if the person is repentant. Repentance is completely based upon evidence of repentance, which includes the attitude of being sorry and ‘works befitting repentance,’ as referred to in Acts 26:20 and 2 Corinthians 7:11, such as trying to correct the wrong or making apologies to any offended individuals. A person may even be “brought” to repentance right within the judicial meeting itself, expressing acknowledgment of the wrong with a contrite heart and a resolve not to repeat the offense. These are all just manifestations of true sorrow for the sin committed.

If the person is found guilty and is unrepentant, he will be disfellowshipped. If within 7 days no appeal is made, the disfellowshipping is made formal by an announcement at the next congregation Service meeting.

If the person believes that an error in judgment has been made by the committee, he has the right to appeal during the next 7 days after the initial decision. The traveling overseer responsible for the area will appoint three additional elders comprising an appeal committee to review the proceedings together with the original committee. This enlarged committee may uphold or reverse the original decision.

After a period of time, a disfellowshipped person may apply to be reinstated into the congregation. The original judicial committee will meet with him to determine repentance, and if this is established, the person will be reinstated into the congregation, but is prohibited from commenting at meetings or holding any privileges for a period set by the judicial committee. (Or, if the applicant is in a different area, the person will meet with a local judicial committee that will communicate with either the original judicial committee if available or a new one in the original congregation.)

[Επεξεργασία] Αντίλογος

Also recently in the Jehovah's Witness organization, there has been some controversy with their disfellowshipping practices as regard to the recent sex abuse scandals. Claims of disfellowshipping being used as a punishment to silence outspoken members of the religious group have become numerous. Although there may have been cases where the directives from the organization were not followed properly, the official position of Jehovah's Witnesses is not to try to silence anyone who has been a recipient or knows of child abuse. They are informed that they have every right, without congregational ramifications, to inform authorities of the child abuse. In many cases, the law itself requires the elders who are aware of the incident to report the case to the local authorities. In states where this is not required, it is left to the offended parties to do so without any congregational sanctions of any kind against them. Those who are found guilty of child/sexual abuse are not allowed to teach in or ever again hold a position of authority in the congregation.

[Επεξεργασία] Ισλάμ

Πρότυπο:Main

In Islam, takfir is a declaration deeming an individual or group kafir, meaning non-believers.

[Επεξεργασία] Ιουδαϊσμός

Cherem is the highest ecclesiastical censure in Judaism. It is the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community. Except in rare cases in the Ultra-Orthodox community, cherem stopped existing after The Enlightenment, when local Jewish communities lost their political autonomy, and Jews were integrated into the greater gentile nations which they lived in. A fuller discussion of this subject is available in the cherem article.

Ο ραβίνος Μαϊμονίδης αναφέρει: «Οι ακόλουθοι τύποι ανθρώπων δεν θα συμμετάσχουν στον Ερχόμενο Κόσμο, και αποκόπτονται, καταστρέφονται και απομακρύνονται για πάντα εξαιτίας των πολύ μεγάλων αμαρτιών τους και της πονηρίας τους: Ο ασεβής· ο αιρετικός· εκείνος που αρνείται την Τορά· εκείνος που αρνείται την Ανάσταση· εκείνος που αρνείται την Απολύτρωση· εκείνος που μεταστρέφεται από τον Ιουδαϊσμό· εκείνος που κάνει πολλούς ανθρώπους να αμαρτάνουν· εκείνος που απομακρύνεται από τους τρόπους της κοινότητας· εκείνος που δημόσια αμαρτάνει με υποτιμητικό τρόπο όπως ο Ιωακείμ· ο πληροφοριοδότης [εναντίον Ιουδαίων]· εκείνος που εμπνέει φόβο στην εκκλησία αλλά όχι στο Όνομα του Θεού· ο δολοφόνος· εκείνος που σχετίζεται με λόσαν χόρα· και εκείνος που αποτραβάει την ακροβυστία του [για να καλύψει την μπριτ μιλά του]». (Χιλκότ Τεσουβά [Μετάνοια], Κεφ. 3, εδώ στην αγγλική)

[Επεξεργασία] Ινδουισμός

Hinduism, being too diverse to be seen as a monolithic religion, and with a conspicuous absence of any listed dogma or ecclesia (organised church), has no concept of excommunication and hence no Hindu may be ousted from the Hindu religion. However, some of the modern organized sects within Hinduism (this might be true for a few of the modern Buddhist sects, too) may practice something equivalent to excommunication today, by ousting a person from their own sect. In medieval and early-modern times (and sometimes even now) in India, excommunication from one's caste (jati or varna) used to be practiced (by the caste-councils) and was often with serious consequences, such as abasement of the person's caste status and even throwing him into the sphere of the untouchables. After excommmunication, it would depend upon the caste-council whether they would accept any form of repentance (ritual or otherwise) or not.

[Επεξεργασία] Υποσημειώσεις

↑ Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής, λήμμα «αφορισμός (1)». (Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών–Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη, 2003)

[Επεξεργασία] Εξωτερικοί ιστότοποι

[Επεξεργασία] Ακαδημαϊκά άρθρα και βιβλία αναφοράς

Esau, Alvin, J, and Esau, Alvin, A J, The Courts and the Colonies: The Litigation of Hutterite Church Disputes, Univ of British Columbia Press, 2004.
Gruter, Margaret, and Masters Roger, Ostracism: A Social and Biological Phenomenom, (Amish) Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights, Gruter Institute, 1984.

[Επεξεργασία] Βιβλιογραφία

Beck, Martha N., Leaving the Saints: How I Lost the Mormons and Found My Faith, Crown, 2005.
Stammer, Larry B., Mormon Author Says He's Facing Excommunication, Los Angeles Times., Los Angeles, CA.: Dec 9, 2004. pg. A.34.
D'anna, Lynnette, Post-Mennonite Women Congregrate to Address Abuse, Herizons, 3/1/93.
Anonymous, Atlanta Mennonite congregation penalized over gays, The Atlanta Journal the Atlanta Constitution, Atlanta, GA: Jan 2, 1999. pg. F.01.
Garrett, Ottie, Garrett Irene, True Stories of the X-Amish: Banned, Excommunicated, Shunned, Horse Cave KY: Nue Leben, Inc., 1998.
Garret, Ruth, Farrant Rick, Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life, HarperSanFrancisco, 2003.
Hostetler, John A. (1993), Amish Society, The John Hopkins University Pres: Baltimore.
MacMaster, Richard K. (1985), Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment of Mennonite Communities in America 1683-1790, Herald Press: Kitchener & Scottdale.
Scott, Stephen (1996), An Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups, Good Books: Intercourse, Pennsylvania.
Juhnke, James, Vision, Doctrine, War: Mennonite Identity and Organization in America, 1890-1930, (The Mennonite Experience in America #3), Scottdale, PA, Herald, Pp 393, 1989.

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