Cholera
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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|---|---|---|
| Vibrio cholerae: The bacterium that causes cholera (SEM image) | ||
| ICD-10 | A00. | |
| ICD-9 | 001 | |
| DiseasesDB | 2546 | |
| MedlinePlus | 000303 | |
| eMedicine | med/351 ped/382 | |
| MeSH | C01.252.400.959.347 | |
Cholera (frequently called Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera) is a severe diarrheal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.[1] Transmission to humans is by water or food. The natural reservoir of the organism is not known. It was long assumed to be humans, but some evidence suggests that it is the aquatic environment.
V. cholerae produces cholera toxin, the model for enterotoxins, whose action on the mucosal epithelium is responsible for the characteristic diarrhea of the disease.[1] In its extreme manifestation, cholera is one of the most rapidly fatal illnesses known. A healthy person may become hypotensive within an hour of the onset of symptoms and may die within 2-3 hours if no treatment is provided. More commonly, the disease progresses from the first liquid stool to shock in 4-12 hours, with death following in 18 hours to several days. [2]
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[edit] Epidemiology
[edit] Susceptibility
Recent epidemiologic research suggests that an individual's susceptibility to cholera (and other diarrheal infections) is affected by their blood type: Those with type O blood are the most susceptible,[3][4] while those with type AB are the most resistant. Between these two extremes are the A and B blood types, with type A being more resistant than type B.[citation needed]
About one million V. cholerae bacteria must be ingested to cause cholera in normally healthy adults, although increased susceptibility may be observed in those with a weakened immune system, individuals with decreased gastric acidity (as from the use of antacids), or those who are malnourished.
It has also been hypothesized that the cystic fibrosis genetic mutation has been maintained in humans due to a selective advantage: heterozygous carriers of the mutation (who are thus not affected by cystic fibrosis) are more resistant to V. cholerae infections.[5] In this model, the genetic deficiency in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator channel proteins interferes with bacteria binding to the gastrointestinal epithelium, thus reducing the effects of an infection.
[edit] Transmission
V. cholerae occurs naturally in the plankton of fresh, brackish, and salt water, attached primarily to copepods in the zooplankton. Both toxic and non-toxic strains exist. Non-toxic strains can acquire toxicity through a lysogenic bacteriophage.[6] Coastal cholera outbreaks typically follow zooplankton blooms. This makes cholera a zoonosis. Cholera is then transmitted through ingestion of feces contaminated with the bacterium. The contamination usually occurs when untreated sewage is released into waterways or into groundwater, affecting the water supply, any foods washed in the water, and shellfish living in the affected waterway — it is rarely spread directly from person to person.
The resulting diarrhea allows bacteria to spread under unsanitary conditions.
[edit] Biochemistry of the V. cholerae bacterium
Most of the V. cholerae bacteria in the water that a potential host drinks do not survive the very acidic conditions of the human stomach [7] But the few bacteria that manage to survive the stomach's acidity conserve their energy and stored nutrients during the perilous passage through the stomach by shutting down much protein production. When the surviving bacteria manage to exit the stomach and reach the favorable conditions of the small intestine, they need to propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to get to the intestinal wall where they can thrive. So they start up production of the hollow cylindrical protein flagellin to make flagella, the curly whip-like tails that they rotate to propel themselves through the pasty mucus that lines the small intestine.
Once the cholera bacteria reach the intestinal wall, they do not need the flagella propellers to move themselves any more, so they stop producing the protein flagellin, thus again conserving energy and nutrients by changing the mix of proteins that they manufacture, responding to the changed chemical surroundings. And on reaching the intestinal wall, they start producing the toxic proteins that give the infected person a watery diarrhea which carries the multiplying and thriving new generations of V. cholerae bacteria out into the drinking water of the next host—if proper sanitation measures are not in place.
Microbiologists have studied the genetic mechanisms by which the V. cholerae bacteria turn off the production of some proteins and turn on the production of other proteins as they respond to the series of chemical environments they encounter, passing through the stomach, through the mucous layer of the small intestine, and on to the intestinal wall.[8] Of particular interest have been the genetic mechanisms by which cholera bacteria turn on the protein production of the toxins that pull chloride ions and accompanying water from the host's blood supply into the small intestine to create the sickening diarrhea. The host can become rapidly dehydrated if an appropriate mixture of dilute salt water and sugar is not taken to replace the blood's water and salts lost in the diarrhea.
By inserting separately successive sections of V. cholerae DNA into the DNA of other bacteria such as E. coli that would not naturally produce the protein toxins, researchers could find out the separate pieces of the mechanisms by which V. cholerae respond to the changing chemical environments of the stomach, mucous layers, and intestinal wall. Researchers discovered that there is a complex cascade of regulatory proteins that control expression of V. cholerae virulence determinants. In responding to the chemical environment at the intestinal wall, the V. cholerae bacteria produce the TcpP/TcpH proteins which, together with the ToxR/ToxS proteins, activate the expression of the ToxT regulatory protein. ToxT then directly activates expression of virulence genes that produce the toxins that cause diarrhea in the infected person and that permit the bacteria to colonize the intestine.[8]Current research aims at discovering "the signal that makes the cholera bacteria stop swimming and start to colonize (that is, adhere to the cells of) the small intestine."[7]
[edit] Symptoms
Symptoms include those of general GI tract upset, including profuse diarrhea. Symptoms also include terrible muscle and stomach cramps. Symptoms are caused by the enterotoxins that V. cholerae produces. The main enterotoxin, known as cholera toxin, interacts with G proteins and cyclic AMP in the intestinal lining to open ion channels. As ions flow into the intestinal lumen, water follows due to osmosis.
[edit] Prevention
Although cholera can be life-threatening, it is easily prevented. In the United States and Western Europe, because of advanced water and sanitation systems, cholera is not a major threat. The last major outbreak of cholera in the United States was in 1911. However, everyone, especially travellers, should be aware of how the disease is transmitted and what can be done to prevent it.
Simple sanitation is usually sufficient to stop an epidemic. There are several points along the transmission path at which the spread may be halted:
- Sickbed: Proper disposal and treatment of waste produced by cholera victims.
- Sewage: Treatment of general sewage before it enters the waterways.
- Sources: Warnings about cholera contamination posted around contaminated water sources.
- Sterilization: Boiling, filtering, and chlorination of water before use.
Filtration and boiling are by far the most effective means of halting transmission. Cloth filters, though very basic, have greatly reduced the occurrence of cholera when used in poor villages in Bangladesh that rely on untreated surface water.
In general, education and sanitation are the limiting factors in preventing transmission.
[edit] Treatment
Courtesy:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Treatment typically consists of aggressive rehydration and replacement of electrolytes either intravenously, or with commercial or hand-mixed sugar-salt solutions. See Oral rehydration therapy and Ceralyte. Without rehydration, the death rate is high due to the serious dehydration that cholera produces.
Tetracycline antibiotics may have a role in reducing the duration and severity of cholera, although drug-resistance is occurring,[9] and their effects on overall mortality are questioned.[10] Other antibiotics that have been used include ciprofloxacin and azithromycin,[11] although again, drug-resistance has now been described.[12]
Without treatment the death rate is as high as 50%; with treatment the death rate is below 1%.[13]
[edit] History
[edit] Origin and Spread
Cholera was originally endemic to the Indian subcontinent, with the Ganges River likely serving as a contamination reservoir. It spread by trade routes (land and sea) to Russia, then to Western Europe, and from Europe to North America. It is now no longer considered an issue in Europe and North America, due to filtering and chlorination of the water supply.
- 1816-1826 - First pandemic: Previously restricted, the pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. It extended as far as China and the Caspian Sea before receding.
- 1829-1851 - Second pandemic reached Europe, London and Paris in 1832. In London, it claimed 6536 victims; in Paris, 20,000 succumbed (out of a population of 650,000) with 100,000 victims in all of France [1]. It reached Russia (Cholera Riots), Quebec, Ontario and New York in the same year and the Pacific coast of North America by 1834.
- 1849 - Second outbreak in Paris. In London, it was the worst outbreak in the city's history, claiming 14,137 lives. An outbreak in North America took the life of former U.S. President James K. Polk
- 1852-1860 - Third pandemic mainly affected Russia, with over a million deaths. In 1853-4, London's epidemic claimed 10,738 lives.
- 1854 - Outbreak of cholera in Chicago took the lives of 5.5 per cent of the population [2]. Soho outbreak in London stopped by blocking of the Broad Street pump by John Snow.
- 1863-1875 - Fourth pandemic spread mostly in Europe and Africa.
- 1866 - Outbreak in North America. In London, a localised epidemic in the East claimed 5,596 lives.
- 1892 - Outbreak, only major in Hamburg, where 8,616 people died, causing a major political upheaval, as control over the City was removed from the City Council which had not updated water supplies. The last serious European outbreak.
- 1899-1923 - Sixth pandemic had little effect in Europe because of advances in public health, but Russia was badly affected again.
- 1961-1970s - Seventh pandemic began in Indonesia, called El Tor after the strain, and reached Bangladesh in 1963, India in 1964, and the USSR in 1966. From North Africa it spread into Italy by 1973. In the late 1970s there were small outbreaks in Japan and in the South Pacific. There were also many reports of a cholera outbreak near Baku in 1972, but information of this was suppressed in the USSR.
- January 1991 to September 1994 - Outbreak in South America, apparently initiated by discharged ballast water. Beginning in Peru there were 1.04 million identified cases and almost 10,000 deaths. The causative agent was an O1, El Tor strain, with small differences to the seventh pandemic strain. In 1992 a new strain appeared in Asia, a non-O1, nonagglutinable vibrio (NAG) named O139 Bengal. It was first identified in Tamilnadu, India and for a while displaced El Tor in southern Asia before decreasing in prevalence from 1995 to around 10% of all cases. It is considered to be an intermediate between El Tor and the classic strain and occurs in a new serogroup. There is evidence as to the emergence of wide-spectrum resistance to drugs such as trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole and streptomycin.
[edit] Famous cholera victims
The crying and pathos in the last movement of Tchaikovsky's last symphony made people think that Tchaikovsky had a premonition of death. "A week after the premiere of his Sixth Symphony, Tchaikovsky was dead.... The cause of this indisposition and stomach ache was suspected to be his infecting himself with cholera by drinking contaminated water. The day before while having lunch with Modest (his brother and biographer), he is said to have poured faucet water from a pitcher into his glass and drunk a few swallows. Since the water was not boiled and cholera was once again rampaging St. Petersburg, such a connection was quite plausible ...."[14]
Other famous people who succumbed to the disease include:
- James K. Polk
- Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
- Samuel Charles Stowe, son of Harriet Beecher Stowe
- Carl von Clausewitz
- George Bradshaw
- Adam Mickiewicz
- August von Gneisenau
- William Jenkins Worth
- John Blake Dillon
- Daniel Morgan Boone, founder of Kansas City, Missouri, son of Daniel Boone
- James Clarence Mangan
- Ando Hiroshige, Japanese ukiyo-e woodblock print artist.
- Juan de Veramendi, Mexican Governor of Texas, father-in-law of Jim Bowie
- Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia
- William Shelley, son of Mary Shelley
- William Godwin, brother of Mary Shelley
- Judge Daniel Stanton Bacon, father-in-law of George Armstrong Custer
- Inessa Armand, mistress of Lenin and the mother of Andre, his son.
- Honinbo Shusaku, famous go player renowned for his play.
Alexandre Dumas, père, French author of The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, also contracted cholera in the 1832 Paris epidemic and almost died, before he wrote these two novels.
[edit] Research
The scientists with major contributions to fighting cholera were John Snow, who found the link between cholera and drinking water in 1854, and Robert Koch, who identified V. cholerae as the bacillus causing the disease. The bacterium was originally isolated thirty years earlier by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini, but his results were not widely known around the world. However, John Snow and Robert Koch didn't know of Pacini's previous success and so were widely credited for the breakthrough.
Cholera has been a laboratory for the study of evolution of virulence. The province of Bengal in British India was partitioned into West Bengal (a state in India) and East Pakistan in 1947. Prior to partition, both regions had cholera pathogens with similar characteristics. After 1947, India made more progress on public health than East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). As a consequence, the strains of the pathogen which succeeded in India had a greater incentive in the longevity of the host and are less virulent than the strains prevailing in Bangladesh, which uninhibitedly draw upon the resources of the host, thus rapidly killing him.
[edit] Other historical information
In the past, people travelling in ships would hang a yellow flag if one or more of the crew members suffered from cholera. Boats with a yellow flag hung would not be allowed to disembark at any harbor for an extended period of time, typically 30 to 40 days.[15]
[edit] Trivia
- A persistent but false urban legend states that 90,000 people died in Chicago of cholera and typhoid fever in 1885. This story has no factual basis.
- Thomas Mann's Death in Venice takes place during an epidemic of cholera, of which the protagonist dies after eating over-ripe strawberries. In the film version, this was changed to a heart attack for aesthetic reasons.
- In the movie and novel "The Painted Veil" a couple moves to China to help the people suffering from cholera.
[edit] References
- ^ a b Ryan KJ; Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology, 4th ed., McGraw Hill. ISBN 0838585299.
- ^ McLeod K (2000). "Our sense of Snow: the myth of John Snow in medical geography". Soc Sci Med 50 (7-8): 923-35. PMID 10714917.
- ^ Swerdlow D, Mintz E, Rodriguez M, Tejada E, Ocampo C, Espejo L, Barrett T, Petzelt J, Bean N, Seminario L (1994). "Severe life-threatening cholera associated with blood group O in Peru: implications for the Latin American epidemic". J Infect Dis 170 (2): 468-72. PMID 8035040.
- ^ Harris J, Khan A, LaRocque R, Dorer D, Chowdhury F, Faruque A, Sack D, Ryan E, Qadri F, Calderwood S (2005). "Blood group, immunity, and risk of infection with Vibrio cholerae in an area of endemicity". Infect Immun 73 (11): 7422-7. PMID 16239542.
- ^ Bertranpetit J, Calafell F (1996). "Genetic and geographical variability in cystic fibrosis: evolutionary considerations". Ciba Found Symp 197: 97-114; discussion 114-8. PMID 8827370.
- ^ Archivist (1997). "Cholera phage discovery". Arch Dis Child 76: 274.
- ^ a b Hartwell LH, Hood L, Goldberg ML, Reynolds AE, Silver LM, and Veres RC (2004). Genetics: From Genes to Genomes. Mc-Graw Hill, Boston: p. 551-552, 572-574 (using the turning off and turning on of gene expression to make toxin proteins in cholera bacteria as a "comprehensive example" of what is known about the mechanisms by which bacteria change the mix of proteins they manufacture to respond to the changing opportunities for surviving and thriving in different chemical environments).
- ^ a b DiRita V, Parsot C, Jander G, Mekalanos J (1991). "Regulatory cascade controls virulence in Vibrio cholerae". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88 (12): 5403-7. PMID 2052618.
- ^ Bhattacharya SK, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (2003). "An evaluation of current cholera treatment". Expert Opin Pharmacother 4 (2): 141-6. PMID 12562304.
- ^ Parsi VK (2001). "Cholera". Prim. Care Update Ob Gyns 8 (3): 106-109. PMID 11378428.
- ^ Saha D, et al. (2006). "Single dose azithromycin for the treatment of cholera in adults". New Engl J Med 354 (23): 2452–62.
- ^ Krishna BVS, Patil AB, Chandrasekhar MR (2006). "Fluoroquinolone-resistant Vibrio cholerae isolated during a cholera outbreak in India" 100 (3): 224–26. DOI:10.1016/j.rstmh.2005.07.007.
- ^ Sack D, Sack R, Nair G, Siddique A (2004). "Cholera". Lancet 363 (9404): 223-33. PMID 14738797.
- ^ Meumayr A (1997). Music and Medicine: Chopin, Smetana, Tchaikovsky, Mahler : Notes on Their Lives, Works, and Medical Histories. Med-Ed Press: pp. 282-283 (summarizing various theories on what killed the composer Tchaikovsky, including his brother Modest's idea that Tchaikovksy drank cholera infested water the day before he became ill).
- ^ Mackowiak PA (2002). "The Origin of Quarantine". Clinical Infectious Diseases 35: 1071–2.
[edit] External links
- Cholera - World Health Organization
- What is Cholera? - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- Cholera information for travelers - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- Steven Shapin, "Sick City: Maps and mortality in the time of cholera", The New Yorker May 2006. A review of Steven Johnson, “The Ghost Map: The Story of London’s Most Terrifying Epidemic — and How It Changed Science, Cities, and the Modern World”
- short paper contrasting official responses to cholera in Hamburg, Soho and New York.
