Foreign relations of the European Union

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Although there has been a large degree of integration between European Union member-states, Foreign Relations is still a largely inter-governmental matter with the 27 members controlling their own relations to a large degree. However with the Union holding more weight as a single bloc, there are more attempts to speak with one voice.

The European Union's influential economic status and its nation-like characteristics has been acknowledged by the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in their publication, The World Factbook. The EU was included in the Factbook in December 2004^[1]. More often now third countries are seeing the Union as either a potential superpower or a present one with it's challenges to the United States and this is shaping the attitudes of, and attitudes towards, Europe. See also: European Union as an emerging superpower.

For specific details on third country relationships, see Third country relationships

[edit] Union policy

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Although the Union does not often act as a single unit directly in international relations, it's weight in the world means it has great potential, when there is agreement. Though areas such as competition policy and industry standards it has shown it's economic power and it is experimenting in increasing its military power, though so far this has only been in the realm of peace-keeping, in part due to there being little desire, capability or agreement over military intervention outside Europe.

In contrast to hard power such as military intervention, the Union primarily uses soft power - out of desire and necessity. As a result European representatives have little drama in their negotiations, unlike the United States for example, instead carefully building up over a long period of time. The basis of foreign policy is also unique, being an organisation the Union does not have a national interest to defend in the same way member-states do, instead its starting point is principles and laws^[2] - being founded upon that idea and consistently supporting organisations such as the United Nations and International Criminal Court.

The Commission President (lower right) at a G8 meeting in 2001

In economical matters, which are highly integrated, there is already a degree of common representation, in the World Trade Organisation (WTO) the European Commissioner for Trade represents the Union as a whole. The latest WTO negotiation round has currently stalled, in part due to the EU's refusal to curtail the agricultural subsidies it distributes through the Common Agricultural Policy without similar action by other developed countries. In addition, it is represented at the G8 and due to the Unions aid contributions the Commission is represented on the UN's executive board for funds and programmes.

Foreign policy is primarily influenced by the larger powers (France, Germany and the United Kingdom) due to their weight, however the United Kingdom is often isolated in its support for the United States, causing internal rifts over Iraq and more so during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict where the United States and United Kingdom were the only countries blocking an UN resolution against Israel despite support from the rest of Europe. When co-operating however, the larger powers, with their extensive diplomatic networks (especially the United Kingdom) can have a great deal of influence.

[edit] Instruments

Due to the limits on the Union's powers, the member states can be more influential in terms of the instruments they wield. Nevertheless one could argue that the most powerful asset of the Union is the prospect of membership. The desire of membership, with its economic and political benefits, has helped democratise much of Eastern Europe, safeguarding human rights and free market systems. For example Turkey abolished the death penalty due to their membership ambitions^[3]. Even Belarus, Europe's "last dictatorship", has picked up on EU offers of economic aid if progress is made on human rights, Belarus currently enduring sanctions by the Union.

This expertise in "soft power" is often attributed to Europe's lack of military power, or it's desire not to use it. Instead the European Union is the worlds biggest humanitarian aid provider totalling €652 million (half the aid in the world) which potentially could do a lot to influence countries. The Union is also a the major trading partner of many countries making tactics like sanctions and embargoes a very powerful tool in some cases.

The Union also relies heavily upon the principle of International Law. Being founded on the principle, and as an organisation is does not have explicit national interests, instruments such as UN resolutions are very important to Brussels, as well as to some member-states who have traditionally held neutrality - however with the emergence of a common foreign and defence policy it is doubtful if any member-state could realistically claim neutrality any longer. Although the Irish were reassured of their neutrality before agreeing to the Nice Treaty, Finnish Prime Minister, Matti Vanhanen, on 5 July 2006 while speaking to the European Parliament as Council President^[4];

“

"Mr Pflüger described Finland as neutral. I must correct him on that: Finland is a member of the EU. We were at one time a politically neutral country, during the time of the Iron Curtain. Now we are a member of the Union, part of this community of values, which has a common policy and, moreover, a common foreign policy."

”

Turkey passed major reforms for the EU

[edit] List of instruments

[edit] Positions

There are a number of foreign relations posts in the Union. Inside the Commission there is the President, Commissioner for External Relations and other positions dealing with third country relations. Outside the Commission the European Council is the other major body, being composed of Heads of State and Government, it has more power in influencing policy. The Secretary-General of the Council is also the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy who speaks for the Union where foreign policy is agreed.

Currently the High Representative is the most notable figure. The current High Representative, Javier Solana, has played a major role for the Union's external policy, for example in stabilising the Balkans, however his power is rather limited in that no external relations position is able to employ use of military action or even sanctions without explicit backing from member-states.

Javier Solana, the current High Representative, with Condoleezza Rice

[edit] List of positions

*= Under the European Constitution these would be combined to create a Union Minister for Foreign Affairs with a European Diplomatic Corps.

[edit] Foreign relations with...

[edit] European relations

EU member states EFTA member states CEFTA member states

Relations with other European States are largely centred on the prospect of Enlargement, or integration short of it. See also: Third country relationships with the European Union.

[edit] Western Europe

Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein are part of the European Economic Area, inside the European Union's single market. Switzerland is outside the EEA but is connected by bilateral agreements and the European Free Trade Association. The other States are micro-states, Andorra, San Marino, Monaco and the Vatican City, they all use the Euro as their currency and with the exception of the latter two have a customs union with the EU and Andorra is the only State to maintain border-controls with it. None of these countries however have any political integration with the Union. Relations with: Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, Microstates.

[edit] Western Balkans

The western Balkans and Turkey are all candidates, or potential candidates, for Union membership. Relations with these states are governed by association agreements and their membership negotiations. These countries are often participate in larger Union projects such as the Energy Community or Single European Sky. See: Enlargement of the European Union

[edit] Eastern Europe

Although further eastern European countries are able to join, there is little chance in the near future due to the current agenda and the stalling of the European Constitution, therefore these States, along with Mediterranean countries, participate in the European Neighbourhood Policy (with the exception of Russia). Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia are the most pro-western with the other States such as Belarus often being scorned by Brussels due to poor democratic and human rights standards. Relations with: Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia.

[edit] Russia

Former German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder with Russian President Vladimir Putin.

Main article: Russia and the European Union

Russia is the Unions largest single neighbour and expressed a large degree of influence over eastern European and central Asian States. The Russian exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast has, since 2004, been surrounded on land by EU members. As a result the Oblast has been isolated from the rest of the federation due to stricter border controls. Moscow chose not to participate in the European Neighbourhood Policy, and instead to cooperate with the Union through "Common Spaces" (see main article). Russia also cooperates in the Northern Dimension.

EU-Russia relations are highly influenced by the Union's dependence upon Russia as an energy supplier. Clashes with Russia over energy are common, with leaders expressing doubt in Russia's reliance after supplies were partially cut on two occasions by transit countries after a dispute with them (see Ukrainian and Belorussian gas disputes). As a result, the Union has sought to diversify supplies away from Russia.^[5].

Relations have also been cool on other issues, there have been proposed pacts on issues such as energy and migration however these have been vetoed by Poland due to a Russian ban on Polish meat^[6]. There have been agreements on other matters such as withdrawal of taxes on EU flights overflying Siberia.

Outside the EU, Russia is a member of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Council of Europe. As a member Russian citizens are able to appeal to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, where 363 judgements concerning Russia were brought to the court between 2002 and 2006, with 352 of those going against Russia. It does however largely comply with the court. ^[7]

[edit] Mediterranean

The countries around the Mediterranean have long been of interest in European foreign policy, a desire to create a "ring of friends" around the Union lead to the creation of the European Neighbourhood Policy which covers the remainder of Eastern Europe and all other countries bordering the Mediterranean (including the Palestinian Authority and Jordan). There are attempts to develop the relationship with the Barcelona Process and a Euro-Mediterranean free trade area. Nicolas Sarkozy has proposed a "Mediterranean Union". Relations with: Israel, Morocco.

[edit] Relations with the wider world

[edit] United States of America

President Barroso meeting President Bush at the White House in 2003.

Main article: Euro-American relations

The United States is often seen as Europe's strategic partner, being ideologically and culturally similar as well as tied together through the NATO alliance. However recently, a number of rifts have emerged, particularly visible since the Iraq war.

As the European Union is built on a basis of international cooperation and the pooling of sovereignty for mutual benefit, it naturally seeks a similar approach in the rest of the world. It supports the United Nations and International Criminal Court as well as agreements such as the Kyoto protocol and human rights agreements. In contrast the United States has been taking a more unilateralist approach with a greater willingness to use military hard power above the European style soft power techniques. Iraq and the War on terror is heavily criticised in Europe. However there still a relative amount of cooperation, in NATO and outside. For example, they have recently finalised an Open skies agreement. See also: EU-US Issues of contention.

However there is difference between member-states in relations towards the United States, a number of governments supported the Iraq war for example. These states tend to be the more eurosceptic governments, namely the United Kingdom, Poland and the Czech Republic, the latter two have agreed to host elements of the United States' ballistic missile defence shield against public opinion on the matter, as was the case with the Iraq war. The Union's as a whole is against the shield on the grounds that it would do little against real threats and would just antagonise countries such as Russia into another Cold War arms race.

[edit] People's Republic of China

Tiananmen Square harmed relations with China immensely.

European leaders, like others, have been courting the PRC since its economic rise, however due to it's authoritarian nature and the Union's concern for Human Rights, relations between the two countries are often double edged. Since the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 the Union has imposed an arms embargo on the country, some leads are keen to replace this however with more general rules on arms sales. There have been other disputes, such as the dispute over textile imports into the EU (Bra wars) with domestic European manufactures loosing out to cheaper Chinese imported goods.

The PRC and EU are increasingly seeking cooperation, for example China joined the Galileo project investing €230 million and has been buying Airbus planes in return for a construction plant to be built in China. There are plans to replace the current 1985 EC-China Trade and Co-operation Agreement with a more comprehensive Partnership and Cooperation Agreement.

[edit] Iran

Javier Solana and the EU three in 2006.

The EU, in the form of the "EU three" (France, Germany and the United Kingdom) lead by CFSP chief Javier Solana, have conducted negotiations with Iran its Nuclear programme. The United States and European nations are concerned that Iran is developing nuclear weapons banned in the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. The EU has lead diplomatic talks to get guarantees there will be development of nuclear power only^[8] while the United States, backing negotiations for now, has maintained a threat of military force^[9]. These talks have not yet succeeded, with the issue going to the UN where sanctions wee placed however Solana is seeking to renew talks^[10]

Iran has also been been seeking to develop an oil bourse which would be the first to be denominated in euro. Although this has not featured in relations between the EU and Iran thus far, if it starts work it would have an considerable impact outside Iran.

[edit] South East Asia

There are annual meetings between the EU and the ASEAN Plus Three however relations have been strained with ASEAN since Myanmar (Burma) joined the group, which is facing EU pressure over human rights abuses by its military regime.

Diplomatic relations of the European Union European Union member states and member state territories European Union embassies and delegations of the European Commission

Diplomatic relations of the European Union^[11] European Union member states and member state territories European Union embassies and delegations of the European Commission

The European Union threatened to boycott an EU-ASEAN meeting when Myanmar was due to take over the presidency of ASEAN, Myanamar eventualy gave up the presidency^[12]. In 2003 the EU and ASEAN agreed to share intelligence on anti-terror matters.^[13].

[edit] Other countries

The European Union's member-states retain close links with many of their former colonies and since the Treaty of Rome there has been a relationship between the Union and the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries in the form of ACP-EU Development Cooperation including a parliamentary assembly.

The Union is also keep to improve relations with other oil producing countries in order to diversify away from Russia, attempting to court central Asian nations^[14]^[15].

[edit] International organisations

The EU will accede to the ECHR.

The Union as a whole is increasingly representing its members in international organisations. Aside from EU-centric organisations (mentioned above), the EU is represented as a bloc in some areas of the United Nations, has non-voting representation in the G8, represents its members in the World Trade Organisation, participates in the ASEAN Regional Forum, is an observer in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and a partner in the Pacific Islands Forum.

After the new institutional settlement is agreed and the Union as a whole gains a legal personality with a Foreign Minister, it is possible the Union will engage more, Luxembourgish Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker proposed the EU join the Council of Europe, as the Constitution outlines the Union's accession to the European Convention of Human Rights. Some officials also see the EU moving towards a single seat on the UN Security Council^[16].