Genetically modified organism

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A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques in genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into one molecule in a test tube. Thus, the expression of certain traits, the phenotype of the organism, or the proteins it produces, can be altered through the modification of its genes.

The term generally does not cover organisms whose genetic makeup has been altered by conventional cross breeding or by "mutagenesis" breeding, as these methods predate the discovery of the recombinant DNA techniques. Technically speaking, however, such techniques are by definition genetic modification.

Contents 1 History 2 Uses of GMOs 2.1 Transgenic animals 3 Controversy over GMOs 4 In popular culture 5 See also 6 References 7 External links 7.1 General 7.2 Transgenic animals

[edit] History

The general principle of producing a GMO is to add genetic material into an organism's genome to generate both new and useful traits. The origins of this genetic engineering were a series of sequential scientific advances from the discovery of DNA to the production of the first recombinant bacteria (E .coli) expressing a frog gene in 1973.^[1] This led to concerns in the scientific community about the possible risks from genetic engineering and led to biologists meeting at the Asilomar Conference in Pacific Grove, California. The recommendations laid out from this conference were that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe.^[2][3] Herbert Boyer then founded the first company to use recombinant DNA technology, Genentech, and in 1978 the company announced that it had produced a strain of E. coli that could produce the human protein insulin.^[4]

In 1986, field tests of a bacterium genetically engineered to protect plants from frost damage (ice-minus bacteria) at a small biotechnology company called Advanced Genetic Sciences of Oakland, California, were repeatedly delayed by opponents of biotechnology. Also in 1986, a proposed field test of a microbe genetically engineered for a pest resistance protein by Monsanto was dropped.[1]

[edit] Uses of GMOs

Examples of GMOs are diverse, and include transgenic experimental animals such as mice, several fish species, transgenic plants, or various microscopic organisms altered for the purposes of genetic research or for the production of pharmaceuticals. The term "genetically modified organism" does not necessarily imply, but does include, transgenic substitution of genes from another species, and research is actively being conducted in this field. For example, genes for fluorescent proteins can be co-expressed with complex proteins in cultured cells to facilitate study by biologists, and modified organisms are used in researching the mechanisms of cancer and other diseases.

Increasingly large numbers of pharmecuticals are produced using GMOs.

[edit] Transgenic animals

Transgenic animals are animals produced with externally introduced genes. Transgenic animals can be used in many fields and as models to test the effect of certain genes on health. They can be used to produce "enhanced" versions of an animal. They can also be used as bioreactors: animals that produce an extra substance we want. Imagine having a transgenic cow that is modified to produce insulin in large quantities in its milk. This insulin can then be purified from the cows milk and used in replacement therapy for treating patients with diabetes mellitus.

An example are transgenic flies, which are flies produced with externally introduced genes. Transgenic flies can be used in many fields and as models to test the effect of certain genes on health and development, similar to the usage of transgenic animals. As the fly genome is in general simpler than that of vertebrates, the effect of introducing an external gene is usually more pronounced than in vertebrates.

[edit] Controversy over GMOs

See also: Genetically modified food controversies

Genetic modification (GM) is the subject of controversy in its own right [2]. Some see the science itself as intolerable meddling with "natural" order, while others recognize the inability of modern science to fully comprehend all of the potential negative ramifications of gene manipulation.

While some would like to see it banned, others push simply for required labeling of genetically modified food. Other controversies include the definition of patent and property pertaining to products of genetic engineering and the possibility of unforeseen global side effects as a result of modified organisms proliferating. The basic ethical issues involved in genetic research are discussed in the article on genetic engineering.

In 2004, Mendocino County, California became the first county in the United States to ban the production of GMOs. The measure passed with a 57% majority. In 2005, a standing committee of the government of Prince Edward Island in Canada began work to assess a proposal to ban the production of GMOs in the province. PEI has already banned GM potatoes, which account for most of its crop. In California, Trinity and Marin counties have also imposed bans on GM crops, while ordinances to do so were unsuccessful in Butte, San Luis Obispo, Humboldt, and Sonoma counties. Supervisors in the agriculturally-rich counties of Fresno, Kern, Kings, Solano, Sutter, and Tulare have passed resolutions supporting the practice [3].

Currently, there is little international consensus regarding the acceptability and effective role of modified "complete" organisms such as plants or animals. A great deal of the modern research that is illuminating complex biochemical processes and disease mechanisms makes vast use of genetic engineering.

The practice of genetic modification as a scientific technique is not restricted in the United States. Individual genetically modified crops (such as soybeans) are studied before being brought to market, but generally only by the companies providing the modification. This "test by those being tested" practice is common in the United States, where many in the FDA are ex-employees of Monsanto, the largest gene-manipulation firm. Most countries in Europe, Japan, Mexico (among others) have taken the opposite position, stating that genetic modification has not been proven safe, and therefore that they will not accept genetically modified food from the United States or any other country. This issue has been brought before the World Trade Organization, which determined that not allowing GMOs into the country creates an unnecessary obstacle to international trade. Consequently, genetic modification within agriculture is an issue of some strong debate in the United States, the European Union, and some other countries.

Some critics have raised the concern that conventionally bred crop plants can be cross-pollinated (bred) from the pollen of modified plants. Pollen can be dispersed over large areas by wind, animals, and insects. Recent research with creeping bentgrass has lent support to the concern when modified genes were found in normal grass up to 21 km (13 miles) away from the source, and also within close relatives of the same genus (Agrostis) [4]. GM proponents point out that outcrossing, as this process is known as, is not new. The same thing happens with any new open-pollinated crop variety—newly introduced traits can potentially cross out into neighbouring crop plants of the same species and, in some cases, to closely related wild relatives. Defenders of GM technology point out that each GM crop is assessed on a case by case basis to determine if there is any risk associated with the outcrossing of the GM trait into wild plant populations. The fact that a GM plant may outcross with a related wild relative is not, in itself, a risk unless such an occurrence has consequences. If, for example, a herbicide resistance trait was to cross into a wild relative of a crop plant it can be predicted that this would not have any consequences except in areas where herbicides are sprayed, such as a farm. In such a setting the farmer can manage this risk by rotating herbicides. If patented genes are outcrossed, even accidentally, to other commercial fields and a person deliberately selects the outcrossed plants for subsequent planting then the patent holder has the right to control the use of those crops. This was supported in Canadian law in the case of Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser. The documentary The Future of Food covers the GMO and Monsanto controversy in more depth.

An often cited controversy is a hypothetical Technology Protection technology (dubbed terminator by non-governmental organization). This yet-to-be-commercialised technology would allow the production of first generation crops that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yield sterile seeds. The patent for this so-called "terminator" gene technology is owned by Delta and Pine Land and the United States Department of Agriculture. Delta and Pine Land was bought by Monsanto in August 2006. In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology in selfpollinating crops such as soybean (a generally contentious issue) another purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits from crosspollinating crops into wild-type species by sterilizing any resultant hybrids. The terminator gene technology created a backlash amongst those who felt the technology would prevent re-use of seed by farmers growing such terminator varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to exercise patent claims. Use of the terminator technology would also prevent "volunteers", or crops that grow from unharvested seed, a major concern that arose during the Starlink debacle.

[edit] In popular culture

Genetically modified characters, whether as heroes, villains, or backdrop, feature prominently in many works of fiction, in particular science fiction and cyberpunk, where it is used as a plot device to explain differences in a character or setting, such as explaining increased longevity or eradication of disease in a fictional civilization.

In the Spider-Man movie, Peter Parker was bitten by a super-spider, enhanced with the genes of many different spiders. The abilities of all these spiders were then transferred from the super-spider, into Peter, turning him into Spider-Man.

The videogame character Shadow the Hedgehog was originally a science experiment who was fused with the DNA of Black Doom, causing him to have the genes of aliens as well as hedgehogs. This however, was not revealed until the game Shadow the Hedgehog.

The plot of the 1982 movie Blade Runner revolved around a group of gentically enhanced, artificially constructed replicants, who possessed superior physical and mental capabilities and were used as slaves.

In the Maximum Ride books by James Patterson, the main characters are human/bird transgenics.

In Red Dwarf, mankind turns to GELFs, Genetically Engineered LifeForms, after the robot revolution leaves them with nothing.

Michael Crichton's novel Next is heavily based around the concept of transgenics.

The TV series Dark Angel features transgenic supersoldiers who where enhanced with animal DNA.

[edit] See also

• Genetically modified food
• Organic farming
• Permaculture
• Organic food
• GM food controversies
• GloFish
• Dolly the sheep
• Ice-minus bacteria

[edit] References

1. ^ Cohen, ricola S., Chang, A., Boyer, H. & Helling, R. (1973) Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids In Vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70, 3240-3244
2. ^ Berg, P., Baltimore, D., Brenner, S., Roblin, R.O. III, Singer, M.F., "Summary statement of the Asilomar Conference on recombinant DNA molecules," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 72, pp. 1981-1984 (1975), also Science 188, p. 991 (1975).
3. ^ "Guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA molecules," Federal Register 41, no. 131, pp. 27911-27943 (1976).
4. ^ Genentech: Press Releases - News Release September 6, 1978 The insulin synthesis is the first laboratory production DNA technology.

Anderson, K. and Lee Ann Jackson. 2005. Some Implications of GM Food Technology Policies for Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Economies 14(3):385-410; doi:10.1093/jae/eji013

Heong, KL, YH Chen, DE Johnson, GC Jahn, M Hossain, RS Hamilton. 2005. Debate Over a GM Rice Trial in China. Letters. Science, Vol 310, Issue 5746, 231-233 , 14 October 2005.

Huang, J., Ruifa Hu, Scott Rozelle, Carl Pray. 2005. Insect-Resistant GM Rice in Farmers' Fields: Assessing Productivity and Health Effects in China. Science (29 April 2005) Vol. 308. no. 5722, pp. 688 – 690. DOI: 10.1126/science.1108972

[edit] External links

[edit] General

• Zaid, A; H.G. Hughes, E. Porceddu, F. Nicholas (2001). Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture - A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Available in English, French, Spanish and Arabic. Rome, Italy: FAO. ISBN 92-5-104683-2. 
• FAO-BiotechNews — News and events about GMOs from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
• [http://webforum.af.czu.cz/list.php?1 GMO Webforum University Praguekkkkllll
• Everything you wanted to know about GM organisms — Provided by New Scientist.
• Genetically Modified Organisms - Information about GMOS and GE
• Eppendorf Biochip Systems Detection method for GMO in food and feed by using GMO-microarray
• Nature 2.0 beta | Legislation, Politics, Science and Spin Behind Genetically Modified Foods
• Food Security and Ag-Biotech News — for balanced news
• Devlin RH, Sundstrom LF, Muir WM. 2006. Interface of biotechnology and ecology for environmental risk assessments of transgenic fish. Trends in Biotechnology 24:89-97 - A scientific article on the advances and problems in making reliable risk-assessment of transgenic fish.
• Bernard Stiegler, "Take Care" — A philosophical approach to the question of GMOs and their relation to human agricultural history.
• GMO Safety - Information about research projects on the biological safety of genetically modified plants.
• International Conference on "GM Crops and Foods" (20/21 November in Frankfurt/Germany)
• The Italian Biosafety Clearing-House The Italian hub on biosafety and GMOs

[edit] Transgenic animals

• Transgenic Fly Virtual Lab - Howard Hughes Medical Institute BioInteractive
• Transgenic Animal Database
• Mouse Genome Informatics (informatics.jax.org)
• ArkDB (theArkDB.org)
• The Rat Genome Database
• Mouse Embryo Banking System
• Mammalian Genetics Unit Harwell: Mouse models for human disease
• Transgenic Animals