நாகரிகம்
கட்டற்ற கலைக்களஞ்சியமான விக்கிபீடியாவில் இருந்து.
நாகரிகம் என்பது, சிறிய கிராமக் குடியிருப்புகளில் வாழ்ந்துகொண்டு அல்லது நாடோடிகளாகத் திரிந்துகொண்டு உயிர் வாழ்வதற்காக வேட்டையாடலையோ அல்லது சிறிய நிலங்களில் விவசாயத்தையோ மேற்கொண்ட குலக்குழுக்கள் அல்லது பழங்குடிகள் போலன்றி, பலர் நகர வாழ்க்கையை மேற்கொண்டு விவசாயத்தைப் பயன்படுத்தும் நிலையிலுள்ள சிக்கலான சமூகங்களைக் குறிக்கும். இதற்கீடான ஆங்கிலச் சொல்லின் மூலமான civis என்னும் லத்தீன் மொழிச் சொல் "பிரஜை" அல்லது "நகரவாசி" என்னும் பொருள்கொண்டது. நவீன தொழிற் சமூகம் ஒரு நாகரீக சமூகத்தின் ஒரு வடிவமாகும்.
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[தொகு] நாகரீகத்தை உருவாக்குவது எது?
பொதுவாக நாகரீகங்கள் பின்வரும் சிறப்பியல்புகளைக் கொண்டுள்ளன:
- விலங்கு வலு, சுழற்சிப் பயிர்ச் செய்கை மற்றும் நீர்ப்பாசனம் போன்ற விவசாயத் தொழில் நுட்பங்களின் உயர்நிலைப் பயன்பாடு. இது விவசாயிகளின் உயிர்வாழ்வுத் தேவைக்கு அதிகமாக மேலதிக உற்பத்திக்கு வழிசமைத்தது.
- தங்களுடைய உணவைத் தாங்களே உற்பத்தி செய்வதற்காக பெருமளவு நேரத்தைச் செலவு செய்யத் தேவையின்றியிருந்த குறிப்பிடத் தக்க அளவு மக்கட் பிரிவினர். இவர்கள் வேறு தொழில்களிலும், வணிகத்திலும் ஈடுபடக்கூடியதாக இருந்தது. இது "specialization of labor" எனக் குறிப்பிடப்படுகிறது.
- நிலையான குடியிருப்புகளில் இவ்வாறான உணவல்லாதன உற்பத்திசெய்வோரின் சேர்க்கை நகரங்கள் எனப்பட்டன.
- ஒரு சமூகப் படிநிலையமைப்பு. இது ஒரு பிரபுத்துவ குடும்பத்தின் அல்லது ஒரு இனக்குழுவின் தலைவன் (chieftain) மக்களை ஆளும் தலைமைமுறை அரசாகவோ (Chiefdom) அல்லது ஆளும் வர்க்கம் அரசாங்கத்தின் அல்லது அதிகார வர்க்க (bureaucracy) த்தின் ஆதரவுடன் நடத்தும் ஒரு அரச சமூகமாகவோ இருக்கலாம். அரச அதிகாரம் நகரங்களிலே குவிந்திருக்கும்.
- சமுதாயத்தின் அன்றாட வாழ்க்கைக்கு நேரடியான ஆதாரமாக அமையாத பல்வேறு சிறப்புத் தொழில் துறை (specialized professions ) களின் உருவாக்கம்.
- குறைந்தளவு மரபார்ந்த பாரம்பரியங்களைக் கொண்ட சமூகங்களைப் போலன்றி, ஒழுங்கமைந்த சமயம் மற்றும் கல்வி போன்ற சிக்கலான, மரபுசார் சமூக நிறுவனங்களின் உருவாக்கம்.
- சிக்கலான பொருளாதாரப் பரிமாற்ற வடிவங்களின் வளர்ச்சி. இது பணம் மற்றும் சந்தைகளின் உருவாக்கத்துக்கு வழிவிடக்கூடிய வணிகத்தின் விரிவாக்கத்தை உள்ளடக்கும்.
- எளிய சமூகங்களில் இருப்பதிலும் கூடிய பொருள்சார் உடைமைகளின் திரள்வு.
- உயிர் வாழ்வுக்காக விவசாயம் செய்யவேண்டிய தேவையில்லாதவர்கள் உருவாக்கும் கலைகளின் உயர் வளர்ச்சி. இது எழுத்துத் துறையையும் உள்ளடக்கும்.
இந்த வரைவிலக்கணத்தின்படி, சீனா போன்ற சில சமூகங்கள் நாகரீக சமூகங்கள் என்பது தெளிவு, அதுபோல புஷ்மென் போன்ற வேறு சமுதாயங்கள் அவ்வாறில்லை என்பதும் வெளிப்படையாகும். எனினும் இந்த வித்தியாசம் எப்பொழுதும் தெளிவாக இருப்பதில்லை. எடுத்துக் காட்டாக, பசிபிக் வடமேற்கில் பெருவளவு மீன்கள் கிடைப்பது, விவசாயம் இன்றியே மேலதிக உணவு வழங்கலை உறுதிசெய்தது. இங்கு வாழும் மக்கள் நிலையான குடியிருப்புக்களையும், சமூகப் படிமுறையையும், பொருட் செல்வத்தையும், உயர் நிலையிலான கலைகளையும் (அதிக புகழுடையதாக குலக்குறிக் கம்பங்கள்) தீவிர விவசாய வளர்ச்சி இல்லாமலேயே உருவாக்கினார்கள். அதே சமயம் தென்மேற்கு வட அமெரிக்காவின் புவேப்லோ (Pueblo) பண்பாட்டினர் உயர்நிலை விவசாயம், நீப்பாசனம், மற்றும் தாவோஸ் போன்ற நிலையான சமுதாயக் குடியிருப்புகளை உருவாக்கியிருந்தும், நாகரீகத்தோடு சம்பந்தப்பட்ட சிக்கலான நிறுவனங்கள் எதையும் உருவாக்கவில்லை. இன்று பல இனக்குழுச் சமூகங்கள் அரசுகளுக்குக் கீழ் அவ்வரசுகளின் சட்டங்களின் அடிப்படையில் வாழுகிறார்கள். நாகரீகத்தின் அரசியல் அமைப்பு அவர்களுடைய வாழ்க்கை முறையின் மேல் திணிக்கப்பட்டுள்ளது, எனவே அவர்களும் நாகரீக மற்றும் இனக்குழுச் சமூக அமைப்புகளுக்கு மத்தியிலான இடைநிலையினராகத்தான் இருக்கிறார்கள்.
எனவே மேலும் அச்சொட்டான, வரையறுக்கப்பட்ட வரைவிலக்கணம் தேவையாகலாம். நாகரிகத்தின் விளைவுகளை நாகரிகம் என்ற கருத்துருவுடன் குழப்பிக் கொள்ளக் கூடாது. நாகரீகம் என்பது, சட்டம் மற்றும் சொத்துரிமைகளின் அடிப்படையிலமைந்த மக்களிடையேயான அமைதிவழி ஊடாடல் (interaction) ஆகும்.
முதலில் உருவான நாகரீகம் சுமேரியர்களுடையதாகும். இவர்கள் கி.மு 3500 அளவில் நகரச் சமூகமாக உருவானார்கள்.
[தொகு] பண்பாட்டு அடையாளமாக நாகரீகம்
"Civilization" can also describe the culture of a complex society, not just the society itself. Every society, civilization or not, has a specific set of ideas and customs, and a certain set of items and arts, that make it unique. Civilizations have even more intricate cultures, including literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion, and complex customs associated with the elite. The intricate culture associated with civilization has a tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, sometimes assimilating them into the civilization (a classic example being Chinese civilization and its influence on Korea, Japan, Tibet, and so forth).
So many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity. A female of African descent living in the United States has many roles that she identifies with. However, she is above all a member of "Western civilization." In the same way, a male of Kurdish ancestry living in Syria is above all a member of "Islamic civilization."
Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as single units. One example is early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler. He said that a civilization's coherence is based around a single primary cultural symbol. Civilizations experience cycles of birth, life, decline and death, often supplanted by a new civilization with a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol.
This "unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian Arnold J. Toynbee in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilizational processes in his multi-volume A Study of History, which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations". Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of moral or religious decline, rather than economic or environmental causes.
Samuel P. Huntington similarly defines a civilization as "the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species." Besides giving a definition of a civilization, Huntington has also proposed several theories about civilizations, discussed below.
[தொகு] நாகரீகம் ஒரு சிக்கலான முறைமை
Another group of theorists, making use of systems theory, look at civilizations as complex systems or networks of cities that emerge from pre-urban cultures, and are defined by the economic, political, military, diplomatic, and cultural interactions between them.
For example, urbanist Jane Jacobs defines cities as the economic engines that work to create large networks of people. The main process that creates these city networks, she says, is "import replacement." Import replacement is when peripheral cities begin to replace goods and services that were formerly imported from more advanced cities. Successful import replacement creates economic growth in these peripheral cities, and allows these cities to then export their goods to less developed cities in their own hinterlands, creating new economic networks. So Jacobs explores economic development across wide networks instead of treating each society as an isolated cultural sphere.
Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges, and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the silk road through Central Asia and Indian Ocean sea routes linking the Roman Empire India, and China, were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, or military, or cultural relations.
Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "World system," a process known as globalization. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began. David Wilkinson has proposed that interaction between the ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians began the process of forming what he calls a "Central Civilization." This Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then spread rapidly with Europian colonization. Others point to the Crusades as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism.
[தொகு] நாகரீகங்களின் எதிர்காலம்
Political scientist Samuel P. Huntington has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a clash of civilizations. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts between nation-states and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries.
Currently, world civilization is in a stage that has created what may be characterized as an industrial society, superceding the agricultural society that preceded it. Some futurists believe that civilization is undergoing another transformation, and that world society will become an informational society.
The Kardashev scale classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently existing.
[தொகு] நாகரீகம் பற்றிய எதிர்மறை நோக்குகள்
Over the years many members of civilizations have shunned them, believing that civilization restricts people from living in their natural state. Religious ascetics in many times and places have attempted to curb the influence of civilization over their lives in order to concentrate on spiritual matters. Monasteries represent an effort by these ascetics to create a life somewhat apart from their mainstream civilizations. In the 19th century, Transcendentalists believed civilization was shallow and materialistic, so they wanted to build a completely agrarian society, free from the oppression of the city.
Karl Marx believed that the beginning of civilization was the beginning of oppression. As more food was produced and the society's material possessions increased, wealth became concentrated in the hands of the powerful. The communal way of life among tribal people gave way to aristocracy and hierarchy, which in turn gave way to the inequalities of industrial society. In addition, some feminists believe that civilization is the source of men's domination over women. Together, these ideas make up modern conflict theory in the social sciences.
Some postmodernists argue that the division of societies into 'civilized' and 'uncivilized' is arbitrary and meaningless. On a fundamental level, they say there is no difference between civilizations and tribal societies; each simply does what it can with the resources it has. The concept of "civilization" has merely been the justification for colonialism, imperialism, genocide, and coercive acculturation.
Many environmentalists criticize civilizations for their exploitation of the environment. Through intensive agriculture and urban growth, civilizations tend to destroy natural settings and habitats. This is sometimes referred to as "dominator culture." Proponents of this view believe that traditional societies live in greater harmony with nature than civilizations; people work with nature rather than try to subdue it. The sustainable living movement is a push from some members of civilization to regain that harmony with nature.
Primitivism is a modern philosophy totally opposed to civilization for all of the above reasons: they accuse civilizations as restricting humans, oppressing the weak, and damaging the environment. A leading proponent is John Zerzan.
[தொகு] "நாகரீகம் என்ற சொல் தொடர்பான பிரச்சினைகள்
Civilization is a highly connotative word, and its use can lead to misunderstanding. It brings to mind qualities such as superiority, humaneness, and refinement. Indeed, many members of civilized societies have seen themselves as superior to the "barbarians" outside their civilization.
Many 19th-century anthropologists backed a theory called cultural evolution. They believed that people naturally progress from a simple state to a superior, civilized state. John Wesley Powell, for example, classified all societies as Savage, Barbarian, and Civilized; the first two of his terms would shock most anthropologists today. Now most social scientists realize that complex societies are not by nature superior, more humane, or more sophisticated than less complex groups.However, the use of the term "civilized" to mean positive things like refinement or politeness remains; see for example the definitions of civilization on dictionary.com. This Boasian relativist view is strongly denied by known English biologist John Baker in his massive book "Race" (Oxford University Press,1974).He gives about 20 criteria for civilizations claimed to be superior to non-civilizations.He furthermore tries to show a relation between the five autochthonous civilizations (Sumerian;Egyptian;Helladic-Minoan;Indus Valley and Sinic)and the biological disposition of their creators. But many scholars today avoid the term "civilization" because it implies superiority; they prefer to use "urban society" or "intensive agricultural society." "Civilization," however, remains in common academic use, especially when talking about specific societies such as "Mayan Civilization."The term "Mayan civilization" is refused by John Baker: the atrocity and brutality of the Mayan society made it impossible to call it a "civilization".
[தொகு] மனிதவரலாற்றின் சில நாகரீகங்கள்
Civilizations can be distinguished from one another in several ways, and the number of distinct civilizations, their duration, and extent, are the subject of some debate. Historians may emphasize cultural distinctiveness, or may distinguish civilizations by degree of economic, political, and diplomatic integration.The list below includes a number of civilizations commonly identified by historians. Many cultures evolve through the fusion of elements from other cultures, so discerning sharp divisions between civilizations on the basis of culture is difficult indeed, and subject to varying interpretations. Civilizations may be lumped or split.
Most of the civilizations identified below meet the criteria of possessing cities, specialized occupations, political entities larger than a single settlement, extensive trade networks, and writing, but not all of the civilizations listed below include all of these criteria. A number of cultures that possess certain of these characteristics are not included here.
Most of these civilizations are now gone; some disappeared, their people returning to a pre-urban way of life; others were conquered by or merged into other civilizations. How many distinct civilizations exist at present is a subject of some debate.
- மெசொப்பொத்தேமிய நாகரிகம் (also called the Fertile Crescent civilization): begins with Sumerian city-states c. 3500 BCE, which developed cuneiform writing. Elements of the civilization were transmitted to neighboring and conquering states and peoples, including Akkad, Elam, Mitanni, Assyria, Babylonia. After sixth century BCE Mesopotamian civilization dominated by Hellenic-Roman and Iranian civilizations.
- லேவண்ட்/மேற்கு செமிட்டிக் நாகரிகம்: includes the urbanized Northwest Semitic cultures of the eastern Mediterranean, including Ugarit, Syria, Phoenicia, Canaan, Kingdom of Israel. Developed alphabetic (strictly speaking, abjad) writing, and, in Israel, monotheism.
- ஹிட்டைட் நாகரிகம்: The Hittites were an urbanized nation of eastern Anatolia from third millennium BCE to c. 600 BCE. their culture fused Mesopotamian (i.e. cuneiform writing), Indo-European, and autochthonous (Hattian?) cultural elements.
- பாரசீக நாகரிகம்: developed on the plateau of Iran after 1000 BCE. Includes Median, Achaemenid, Parthian, Bactrian, Sogdian, and Sassanian states and empires. Culture combined Mesopotamian and Indo-European elements. Iranian religions were distinct, and included Magism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeanism, Mithraism. Iran dominated much of western and central Asia from c. 600 BCE to Islamic conquest after 636 CE.
- எகிப்திய நாகரிகம்: developed in the Nile valley c. 3000 BCE. Includes Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, as well as neighboring Nubia. After fourth century BCE dominated by Hellenic-Roman civilization.
- இந்திய நாகரிகம்: consisted of two distinct societies.
- சிந்துவெளி நாகரீகம்: emerged after 2600 BCE, also called the Harappan civilization. Harappan script has not yet been deciphered.
- வேதகால நாகரிகம்: emerged in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges after 1500 BCE, initially as republics and kingdoms. Developed Maurya and Gupta empires and modern Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. The degree of continuity between Harappan and Vedic civilization is subject to considerable debate, and they may be distinct civilizations.
- மினோவன் மற்றும் Mycenaean நாகரீகம்: emerged c. 2000 BCE around the Aegean sea and on its islands. Minoan writing has not been deciphered. Mycenaean culture took hold after the collapse of Minoan culture, and went into decline after 1100 BCE. The degree to which Aegean civilization is autochthonous, having emerged from the culture of Old Europe, or is derived from Afroasiatic cultures of Egypt and the Levant is subject to debate.
- சீன நாகரிகம்: emerged in the second millennium BCE in northern China, later spread to the rest of China, Korea, and Japan. Indigenous religions, Confucianism and Taoism, later supplemented by Buddhism, introduced from India.
- கிரேக்க-உரோம நாகரிகம்: emerged around the Aegean after the Greek dark ages, 1000 CE. Greek settlement around the Mediterranean and Black seas, and Alexander's conquest of the Persian empire in the fourth century, spread Hellenic civilization around the Mediterranean, where it was absorbed by non-Greek peoples, including the Romans. The Roman Empire adopted Christianity after the fourth century CE, and collapsed around the western Mediterranean during the sixth century.
- மேற்கத்திய நாகரிகம்: evolved from the Christian Latin-speaking portion of the Roman Empire, which grew to include most of western and central Europe during the Middle Ages. Generally understood to include Roman Catholic and Protestant nations of Europe, and the areas they later settled such as North America, Latin America, and Australia. This civilization was the first to develop into an industrial society.
- பைசன்டைன் நாகரிகம்: the Greek-speaking portion of the Roman Empire continued after its collapse in the west, fusing Hellenic and Christian elements, and its culture was adopted by neighboring peoples. Historians who characterize Byzantium as distinct from Western civilization usually focus on the institution of Caesaropapism, which fused religious and state authority. Byzantine culture spread to eastern Slavic peoples, including Russia. Byzantium itself was conquered by Turkish armies in 1453.
- தென்கிழக்காசிய நாகரிகம்: includes the urban cultures that emerged in Southeast Asia and Indonesia during the first millennium CE, including Mon, Khmer Champa, Thailand, Burma on the mainland, and Srivijaya and Majapahit in Indonesia. Southeast Asian civilization absorbed cultural influences from India, including Hinduism and Buddhism, and from China, and later from Islam.
- மெசோஅமெரிக்க நாகரிகம்: emerged with the first Olmec cities in the lowlands along the Gulf of Mexico in the first millennium BCE. Later developed in two centers: the Valley of Mexico, home to Teotihuacan, the Toltecs, and Aztecs, and the Maya civilization of Guatemala and the Yucatan. Conquered in the 16th century by Spanish colonists.
- அண்டியன் நாகரிகம்: developed in the first millennium CE in the central Andes and the central Pacific coast of South America, including the urbanized cultures of Chimu, Tiwanaku, Chavin, Ica-Nazca, Aymara, and Inca. Conquered in the 16th century by Spanish colonists.
- ஜப்பானிய நாகரிகம்: initially developed as a fusion of indigenous (i.e. Shinto) and Chinese cultural elements, transmitted via Korea.
- இஸ்லாமிய நாகரிகம்: emerged from the Arabian Peninsula in the seventh century CE, and later spread to include most of western and Central Asia, northern Africa, and Indonesia. Early states include the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates; later examples include Seljuk and Ottoman Turkey.
- சிப்சா நாகரிகம்: developed in the Cauca and Magdalena river valleys of the northern Andes, in modern Colombia. Conquered in the 16th century by Spanish colonists.
- மேற்காபிரிக்க நாகரிகம்: Large cities emerged c. 1000 CE, funded by wealth from the trade of gold and salt with other civilizations. First major kingdom was Ghana Empire; other early states included Mali, Kanem-Bornu, the Hausa cities, and the Songhai Empire.
- மிஸ்ஸிசிப்பிய நாகரிகம்: included Cahokia and other cities of the Mississippi and Ohio river valleys. Cities were abandoned by c. 1400 CE.
- ஸிம்பாப்விய நாகரிகம்: civilization of southwestern Africa. Great Zimbabwe was the major center, but by the 1500s was in ruin.
[தொகு] வெளியிணைப்புகள்
- நாகரீகம் பற்றி பிபிசி (ஆங்கிலம்)
- நாகரீகத்துக்கு எதிரான கூட்டமைப்பு (Coalition Against Civilization)
- Wiktionary: civilization, civilize
