保加利亞歷史
维基百科，自由的百科全书
保加利亞歷史，是指現時保加利亞共和國之前身之國家歷史，與大保加利亞和伏爾加保加利亞有分別。保加爾人自在高加索山脈和現時俄羅斯南部和烏克蘭地區西北移動后，在7世紀起陸陸續續到達巴爾幹半島。保加爾人之來源依然不甚清楚，現時理論有二：其一認爲保加爾人與匈人有關，與突厥人則有較疏遠。其二而較新之觀點認爲他們有亞利安和帕米爾高原源頭。
保加爾人受世襲可汗和Boyar貴族所管理。宗教上，他們是一神論者。在8世紀起很多伏爾加保加爾人改信伊斯蘭教。他們是好戰的，大部分時間在馬上到處遊掠和遷居。
在6世紀和7世紀間，保加人在黑海北岸生活。由於受到東方之哈札爾人的侵擾，保加爾人之Kutriguri部在6世紀遷居到現時是羅馬尼亞的地區。681年，這批保加爾人渡過多瑙河進入現時保加利亞地區。保加爾Utiguri部在伏爾加河流域定居下來，並改信伊斯蘭教和保持獨立直至十三世紀。
目录 |
[编辑] 保加爾人
保加爾人，或譯「不里阿耳人」，為一中亞土耳其族, 在七世紀由中亞到達巴尔干半岛。在七世紀晚期與當地斯拉夫人融合形成第一個保加利亞國家。
保加爾人由世襲的可汗統治。有一些貴族成員擁有武力而形成了統治階級。保加爾人是一神教，拜的神稱為"Tangra"。
The migration of Bulgars to the European continent started as early as the 2nd century when branches of Bulgars settled on the plains between the Caspian and the Black Sea. Between 351 and 389, some of these crossed the 高加索 and settled in 亞美尼亞. They were eventually assimilated by the 亞美尼亞人.
Swept by the Hunnish wave at the beginning of the 4th century, other numerous Bulgarian tribes broke loose from their settlements in central Asia to migrate to the fertile lands along the lower valleys of the Donets and the 頓河, Russia|Don]] rivers and the Azov seashore. Some of these remained for centuries in their new settlements, whereas others moved on with the Huns towards 中欧, settling in 潘诺尼亚.
In the 632, the Bulgars, led by Khan Kubrat formed an independent state, often called Great Bulgaria, between the lower course of the 多瑙河 to the west, the 黑海 and the 亞速海 to the south, the Kuban river to the east, and the Donets river to the north. The capital of the state was Phanagoria, on the Azov.
The pressure from peoples further east (such as the Khazars) led to the dissolution of Great Bulgaria in the second half of the 7th century. One Bulgar tribe migrated to the confluence of the 伏尔加河 and Kama Rivers in what is now the Russian Federation (see Volga Bulgaria). Most of those that stayed in those lands were converted to Islam in the beginning in the 8th century and maintained an independent state until the 13th century, others, like the present-day Chuvash, converted to Christianity. Smaller Bulgar tribes seceded in Pannonia and in 意大利, northwest of Naples, while other Bulgars sought refuge with the Lombards. Another group of Bulgars remained in the land north of the Black and the Azov Seas. They were, however, soon subdued by the Khazars. These Bulgars converted to 犹太教 in the 9th century, along with the Khazars, and were eventually assimilated.
Yet another Bulgar tribe, led by Khan Asparuh, moved westward, occupying today’s southern Bessarabia. After a successful war with Byzantium in 680, Asparuh’s khanate conquered Moesia and Dobrudja and was recognised as an independent state under the subsequent treaty signed with the 拜占庭帝国 in 681. The same year is usually regarded as the year of the establishment of present-day 保加利亚.
Another possibility is that Great Bulgaria, despite suffering a major loss of territory at the hands of the Khazars, managed to defeat them in the early 670s. Khan Asparuh, the successor to Khan Kubrat, may have subsequently conquered Moesia and Dobrudja from the 拜占庭帝国 in 680. Thus, the date for the establishment of present-day Bulgaria could be considered 632 as opposed to 681, since the state of Great Bulgaria may have been continuous with the Danubian Bulgarian state.
[编辑] 保加利亞第一王國
現今保加利亞地區在羅馬帝國時代被稱爲莫西亞；大部分居民以說拉丁語之旁支通俗拉丁语的色雷斯人，希臘人和達契亞人爲主。公元7世紀中葉，斯拉夫人佔領莫西亞地區。681年，保加爾人在多瑙河南岸打敗了拜占庭皇帝查士丁尼二世所領導之軍隊。保加汗阿斯巴鲁赫和查士丁尼二世在其後之協定中將多瑙河以南與巴爾幹山脈之間地區割予保加人。拜占庭亦保持一貫作風：每年交付金錢予保加爾人。
此後保加爾人在多瑙河下游流域建立汗國，但其斯拉夫居民在數目上遠超保加人。由7世紀至10世紀，保加爾人漸漸被斯拉夫人同化，並採用一種南斯拉夫語族之保加利亞語。在公元1000年左右，他們演變成現今定性為接近塞爾維亞人之南斯拉夫民族中，與來自中亞的都蘭尼亞平原之保加爾人不同的保加利亞人。保加爾汗則變成保加利亞沙皇。而這時之第一保加利亞帝國被部分學者稱爲西保加利亞帝國，以區別于當時依然居住于伏爾加河流域之保加爾人。
9世紀馬扎兒人到達現今匈牙利地區並促使保加爾人向南擴張。在好戰之克鲁姆汗（802至14年在位）的領導下，索非亞和亞得里亞那堡（現今埃迪爾內市）分別在811年和813年被佔領。克鲁姆在814年之君士坦丁堡圍攻期間死去。宗教上，鲍里斯一世在865年接受東正教，普世牧首容許在奧赫里德建立獨立之保加利亞牧首管理保加利亞教務。
約在886年，保加利亞帝國採用由生於帖撒羅尼加的傳道士聖西里爾及聖梅索迪斯所創之格拉哥里字母。在格拉哥里字母和古教會斯拉夫語的基礎上，由鲍里斯一世在886年下令建成普雷斯拉夫和奧赫里德人文學院帶領之保加利亞進入文化和文學的活躍期。9世紀初期，普雷斯拉夫人文學院在希臘和格羅葛里字母之速寫基礎上發明了西里爾字母。另一說法是聖濟利祿及聖默多狄的徒弟和學者，奧赫里德的聖克萊孟在奧赫里德人文學院在發明了西里爾字母。同時期的里拉的聖伊凡（876年-946年）成爲保加利亞之守護聖徒。
在西美昂一世（或稱西美昂大帝，893年至927年在位）帶領下之保加利亞成爲拜占庭帝國在歐洲之主要對手。西美昂在位期間與拜占庭帝國爭戰，意圖成爲保加人和希臘人的皇帝。西美昂在將塞爾維亞變成保加利亞之附庸後，自立為保加利亞人和希臘人的“凱撒”（沙皇）。這稱號被羅馬教宗所承認而當然不被拜占庭接納。此後西美昂在西北邊境與來自達爾馬提亞並保有波斯尼亞大部分的克羅地亞君主托米斯拉夫爭持，北方則有馬扎兒人和佩切涅格(Pechenegs)族。
索非亞在西美昂時期成爲學術中心。9世紀起，拜占庭決定帖撒羅尼加成為保加利亞與拜占庭的通商城市；直至西美昂時保加利亞入侵色雷斯，拜占庭才遷囘君士坦丁堡。
由他的大帝稱號可知西美昂一世是第一保加利亞帝國極強大時期的君主；他甚至被媲美成保加利亞的查理曼。不過在西美昂死後，保加利亞走下坡。沙皇彼得一世和鲍里斯二世時期，國内有波各米勒派異端的宗教爭議，外有與北方匈牙利之戰爭和西面塞爾維亞的獨立。972年，拜占庭皇帝約翰一世將保加利亞東部領土收為保護國。西面以馬其頓為中心的領土暫時保持獨立，直到1014年7月29日巴西尔二世的軍隊在Balasita戰役中大敗保加利亞沙皇薩穆伊爾。相傳巴齊爾將一万四千名戰俘中每一百個戰俘只保留一眼來帶領戰俘回家外，其餘全部弄盲。薩穆伊爾見到戰俘歸國時之情景而病倒，兩個餘月后（同年的10月6日死去。巴西爾並因此得到「保加的屠夫」這個綽號。
在1018年起保加利亞大體上為拜占庭所控制，第一保加利亞結束。
[编辑] 勢力範圍
保加爾汗國直接控制的領土在阿斯巴鲁赫至克鲁姆登位以前都在在川西凡尼亞山脈南麓的多瑙河下游流域附近。克鲁姆、奧莫爾塔格、馬拉米爾和普里西安四汗時至860年代在西北佔領潘诺尼亚在提薩河以東的地區、西邊以貝爾格勒和Srem城為邊界與摩拉維亞和那時新興的塞爾維亞接壤、以南推進至索非亞和現今塞爾維亞，黑山的南部和馬其頓共和國（包括奧赫里德和現時斯科普里和科索沃）的地區，並在色雷斯與帖撒羅尼加之間得到出愛琴海的港口。西美昂一世時期，保加利亞領土再向南推進到伊庇鲁斯地區和包括亞得里亞那堡的色雷斯大部份地區。以西收塞爾維亞為保護國，並與西方之克羅地亞和西北之馬扎兒人接壤。北方曾經名義上控制過後來受馬扎兒人影響的川西凡尼亞，又名義上控制過後來受佩切涅格人（属突厥民族）佔居的川西凡尼亞以東至黑海西北岸，約即現今烏克蘭西南部和摩達維亞的東南部地區。
後來發展至占庭皇帝約翰一世時，拜占庭取去現今和多瑙河下游南岸、色雷斯和埃皮魯斯。匈牙利取去帕諾尼亞和川西凡尼亞的全部。佩切涅格人族繼續控制上述其佔居地區，後來這地方成爲摩達維亞的一部分。這時多瑙河下游北岸和川西凡尼亞山脈南麓之間的地方基本上成為無人管治地帶，後來這片土地發展為瓦拉几亚。塞爾維亞諸邦又漸漸走向獨立。保加利亞龜縮至以馬其頓為中心的地區，並一直受沙皇薩穆伊爾和其數位繼任者管治至1018年。
[编辑] 保加利亞第二王國
The Byzantines ruled Bulgaria from 1018 to 1185, subordinating the independent 保加利亞東正教會 to the authority of the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople but otherwise interfering little in Bulgarian local affairs. There were rebellions against Byzantine rule in 1040-41, the 1070s and the 1080s, but these failed. By the late 12th century the Byzantines were in decline after a series of wars with the Hungarians and the Serbs. In 1185 Peter and Asen, leading nobles of supposed and contested Bulgarian, Cuman, Vlach or mixed origin, led a revolt against Byzantine rule and Peter declared himself Tsar Peter II (also known as Theodore Peter). The following year the Byzantines were forced to recognise Bulgaria's independence. Peter styled himself "Tsar of the Bulgars, Greeks and Vlachs".
Resurrected Bulgaria occupied the territory between the 黑海, the Danube and Stara Planina, including a part of eastern 馬其頓 and the valley of the Morava. It also exercised control over Wallachia and Moldova. Tsar Kaloyan (1197-1207) entered a union with the Papacy, thereby securing the recognition of his title of "Rex" although he desired to be recognized as "Emperor" or "Tsar". He waged wars on the Byzantine Empire and (after 1204) on the Knights of the Fourth Crusade, conquering large parts of Thrace, the 羅多彼山脈, as well as the whole of Macedonia. The power of the Hungarians and to some extent the Serbs prevented significant expansion to the west and northwest. Under Ivan Asen II (1218-1241), Bulgaria once again became a regional power, occupying Belgrade and Albania. In an inscription from Turnovo in 1230 he entitled himself "In Christ the Lord faithful Tsar and autocrat of the Bulgarians, son of the old Asen". The Bulgarian Orthodox Patriarchate was restored in 1235 with approval of all eastern Patriarchates, thus putting an end to the union with the 教宗. Ivan Asen II had a reputation as a wise and humane ruler, and opened relations with the 天主教 west, especially 威尼斯 and 热那亚, to reduce the influence of the Byzantines over his country.
However, weakened 14th-century Bulgaria was no match for a new threat from the south, the Ottoman Turks, who crossed into Europe in 1354. In 1362 they captured Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and in 1382 they took Sofia. The Ottomans then turned their attentions to the Serbs, whom they routed at Kosovo Polje in 1389. In 1393 the Ottomans occupied Turnovo after a three-month siege. It is thought that the south gate was opened from inside and so the Ottomans managed to enter the fortress. In 1396 the Kingdom (Tsardom) of Vidin was also occupied, bringing the Second Bulgarian Empire and Bulgarian independence to an end.
[编辑] 鄂圖曼帝國下的保加利亞
The Ottomans reorganised the Bulgarian territories as the Beyerlik of Rumili, ruled by a Beylerbey at Sofia. This territory, which included Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia, was divided into several sanjaks, each ruled by a Sanjakbey accountable to the Beylerbey. Significant part of the conquered land was parcelled out to the 蘇丹 followers, who held it as feudal fiefs (small timars, medium ziyamet and large hases) directly from him. That category of land could not be sold or inherited, but reverted to the Sultan when the fiefholder died. The rest of the lands were organized as private possessions of the Sultan or Ottoman nobility, called "mülk", and also as economic base for religious foundations, called "vakιf". Bulgarians gave multiple regularly paid taxes as a tithe ("yushur"), a capitation tax ("dzhizie"), a land tax ("ispench"), a levy on commerce and so on and also various group of irregularly collected taxes, products and corvees ("avariz").
The Ottomans did not normally require the Christians to become Muslims. Nevertheless, there were many cases of individual or mass forced islamization, especially in the 羅多彼山脈. Non-Muslims did not serve in the Sultan's army. The exception to this were some groups of the population with specific statute, usually used for auxiliary or rear services, and the famous "tribute of children" (or blood tax), also known as the "devsirme", whereby every fifth young boy was taken to be trained as a warrior of the Empire. These boys went through harsh religious and military training that turned them into an elite corps subservient to the Sultan. They made up the corps of Janissaries (yenicheri or "new force"), an elite unit of the Ottoman army.
[编辑] 國家覺醒
Bulgarian nationalism emerged in the early 19th century under the influence of western ideas such as liberalism and nationalism, which trickled into the country after the 法国大革命, mostly via Greece. The Greek revolt against the Ottomans which began in 1821 (see History of Ottoman Greece), also influenced the small Bulgarian educated class. But Greek influence was limited by the general Bulgarian resentment of Greek control of the Bulgarian Church, and it was the struggle to revive an independent Bulgarian Church which first roused Bulgarian nationalist sentiment. In 1870 a Bulgarian Exarchate was created by a Sultan edict, and the first Bulgarian Exarch (Antim I) became the natural leader of the emerging nation. The Constantinople Patriarch reacted by excommunicating the Bulgarian Exarchate, which reinforced their will for independence.
In April 1876 the Bulgarians revolted in the so-called April Uprising. The revolt was poorly organized and started before the planned date. It was largely confined to the region of Plovdiv, though certain districts in northern Bulgaria, in Macedonia and in the area of Sliven also took part in it. The uprising was crushed with cruelty by the Ottomans who also brought irregular Ottoman troops (bashi-bazouks) from outside the area. Countless villages were pillages and tens of thousands of people were massacred, the majority of them in the insurgents towns of Batak, Perushtitsa and Bratsigovo in the area of Plovdiv. The massacres aroused a broad public reaction led by liberal Europeans such as William Gladstone, who launched a campaign against the "Bulgarian Horrors". The campaign was supported by a number of European intellectuals and public figures. The strongest reaction, however, came from Russia. The enormous public outcry which the April Uprising had caused in Europe gave the Russians a long-waited chance to realise their long-term objectives with regard to the Ottoman Empire.
Having its reputation at stake, Russia had no other choice but to declare war on the Ottomans in April 1877. The 羅馬尼亞 army and a small contingent of Bulgarian exiles also fought alongside the advancing Russians. The Coalition was able to inflict a decisive defeat on the Ottomans at the Battle of Shipka Pass and at the Pleven, and, by January 1878 they had liberated much of the Bulgarian lands.
[编辑] 獨立的保加利亞
The 聖斯特凡諾條約 of March 3, 1878年 provided for an independent Bulgarian state, which spanned over the geographical regions of Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia. However, trying to preserve the balance of power in Europe and fearing the establishment of a large Russian client state on the Balkans, the other Great Powers were reluctant to agree to the treaty.
As a result, the 柏林條約 (1878年), under the supervision of Otto von Bismarck of Germany and Benjamin Disraeli of Britain, revised the earlier treaty, and scaled back the proposed Bulgarian state. An autonomous Principality of Bulgaria was created, between the Danube and the Stara Planina range, with its seat at the old Bulgarian capital of Veliko Turnovo, and including Sofia. This state was to be under nominal Ottoman sovereignty but was to be ruled by a prince elected by a congress of Bulgarian notables and approved by the Powers. They insisted that the Prince could not be a Russian, but in a compromise Prince Alexander of Battenberg, a nephew of Tsar Alexander II, was chosen. An autonomous Ottoman province under the name of Eastern Rumelia was created south of the Stara Planina range. The Bulgarians in Macedonia and Eastern Thrace were left under the rule of the Sultan. Some Bulgarian territories were also given to Serbia and Romania.
[编辑] 共產主義的保加利亞
During this time (1944-1989), the country was known as the "People's Republic of Bulgaria" (PRB) and was ruled by the 保加利亞共產黨 (BCP). BCP transformed itself in 1990, changing its name to "保加利亞社會黨", and is currently part of the governing coalition government.
Although Dimitrov had been in exile, mostly in the Soviet Union, since 1923, he was far from being a Soviet puppet. He had shown great courage in Nazi Germany during the 国会纵火案 trial of 1933, and had later headed the Comintern during the period of the Popular Front. He was also close to the Yugoslav Communist leader Tito, and believed that Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, as closely related South Slav peoples, should form a federation. This idea was not favoured by Stalin, and there have long been suspicions that Dimitrov's sudden death in July 1949 was not accidental, although this has never been proved. It coincided with Stalin's expulsion of Tito from the Cominform, and was followed by a "Titoist" witchhunt in Bulgaria. This culminated in the show trial and execution of the Deputy Prime Minister, Traicho Kostov. The elderly Kolarov died in 1950, and power then passed to an extreme Stalinist, Vulko Chervenkov.
Bulgaria's Stalinist phase lasted less than five years. Agriculture was collectivised and peasant rebellions crushed. Labor camps were set up and at the height of the repression housed about 100,000 people. The Orthodox Patriarch was confined to a monastery and the Church placed under state control. In 1950 diplomatic relations with the U.S. were broken off. The Turkish minority was persecuted, and border disputes with Greece and Yugoslavia revived. The country lived in a state of fear and isolation. But Chervenkov's support base even in the Communist Party was too narrow for him to survive long once his patron, Stalin, was gone. Stalin died in March 1953, and in March 1954 Chervenkov was deposed as Party Secretary with the approval of the new leadership in Moscow and replaced by Todor Zhivkov. Chervenkov stayed on as Prime Minister until April 1956, when he was finally dismissed and replaced by Anton Yugov.
[编辑] 1989年後的歷史
By the time the impact of 戈尔巴乔夫 reform program in the Soviet Union was felt in Bulgaria in the late 1980s, the Communists, like their leader, had grown too feeble to resist the demand for change for long. In November 1989 demonstrations on ecological issues were staged in Sofia, and these soon broadened into a general campaign for political reform. The Communists reacted by deposing the decrepit Zhivkov and replacing him with Petar Mladenov, but this gained them only a short respite. In February 1990 the Party voluntarily gave up its claim on power and in June 1990 the first free elections since 1931 were held, won by the moderate wing of the Communist Party, renamed the 保加利亞社會黨. In July 1991 a new Constitution was adopted, in which there was a weak elected President and a Prime Minister accountable to the legislature.
Like the other post-Communist regimes in eastern Europe, Bulgaria found the transition to capitalism more painful than expected. The anti-Communist Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) took office and between 1992 and 1994 carried through the privatisation of land and industry through the issue of shares in government enterprises to all citizens, but these were accompanied by massive unemployment as uncompetitive industries failed and the backward state of Bulgaria's industry and infrastructure were revealed. The Socialists portrayed themselves as the defender of the poor against the excesses of the free market. The reaction against economic reform allowed Zhan Videnov of the BSP to take office in 1995. But by 1996 the BSP government was also in difficulties, and in the presidential elections of that year the UDF's Petar Stoyanov was elected. In 1997 the BSP government collapsed and the UDF came to power. Unemployment, however, remained high and the electorate became increasingly dissatisfied with both parties.
2006年10月22日，总统选举举行，格奥尔基·珀尔瓦诺夫和沃·西德罗夫进入第二轮。[1]10月29日，第二轮总统选举举行。[2]珀尔瓦诺夫当选总统。[3]
[编辑] 參見
- 保加利亚君主列表
- zh-cn:比托拉;zh-hk:比托拉;zh-tw:畢特拉;石刻
- 保加利亞人(Bulgarians)
- 保加利亞東正教會(Bulgarian Orthodox Church)
- 巴爾幹半島的歷史(History of the Balkans)
- 古教會斯拉夫語
- 欧洲历史
[编辑] 參考文獻
- Fine, John V.A. Jr. (1983). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
- Hupchick, Dennis P. (2002). The Balkans: from Constantinople to communism. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
- Lang, David Marshall. (1976) The Bulgarians : from pagan times to the Ottoman conquest. London: Thames and Hudson.
- Balkans : A history of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Turkey / by Nevill Forbes ... [et al.]. 1915.
- History of Bulgaria / Hristo Hristov ; [translated from the Bulgarian, Stefan Kostov ; editor, Dimiter Markovski]. Khristov, Khristo Angelov,. c1985.
- History of Bulgaria, 1393-1885 / [by] Mercia Macdermott. MacDermott, Mercia, 1927- [1962].
- Concise history of Bulgaria / R.J. Crampton. Crampton, R. J. 1997.
- Short history of Bulgaria / [by] D. Kossev, H. Hristov [and] D. Angelov ; [Translated by Marguerite Alexieva and Nicolai Koledarov ; illustrated by Ivan Bogdanov [and] Vladislav Paskalev]. Kossev, D. 1963.
- Short history of Bulgaria / Nikolai Todorov ; [L. Dimitrova, translator]. Todorov, Nikolai, 1921- 1975.
- 12 Myths in Bulgarian History/ [by] Bozhidar Dimitrov; Published by "KOM Foundation," Sofia, 2005.
- The 7th Ancient Civilizations in Bulgaria [The Golden Prehistoric Civilization, Civilization of Thracians and Macedonians, Hellenistic Civilization, Roman [Empire] Civilization, Byzantine [Empire] Civilization, Bulgarian Civilization, Islamic Civilization]]/ [by] Bozhidar Dimitrov; Published by "KOM Foundation," Sofia, 2005 (108 p.)
[编辑] 外部連結
[编辑] 中文
[编辑] 保加利亞語
[编辑] 英語
- 保加利亞歷史(681年至1944年)
- 保加利亞諸君主和領導小傳
- 保加和第一保加利亞帝國
- 拜占庭帝國馬其頓王朝下的保加利亞
- 保加利亞阿森王朝
- 保加利亞Terter王朝
- 保加利亞自1879年至今
- 保加利亞歷史地圖
- History of Bulgaria
- Historical maps of medieval Bulgaria (in Bulgarian)
- Historical maps of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule (1396-1878)
- Historical maps of modern Bulgaria (in Bulgarian)
- WWW-VL: History: Bulgaria
- 保加利亞的根本歷史在七頁
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