Turkish cuisine
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Turkish cuisine inherited its Ottoman heritage which could be described as a fusion and refinement of Turkic, Arabic, Greek and Persian cuisines.[1] Turkish cuisine also influenced these cuisines and other neighbouring cuisines, as well as west European cuisines. Ottomans fused various culinary traditions of their realm with influences from Middle Eastern cuisines, along with traditional Turkic elements from Central Asia such as yogurt. The Ottoman Empire indeed created a vast array of technical specialities. It can be observed that various regions of the Ottoman Empire contain bits and pieces of the vast Ottoman dishes.
Frequently used ingredients in Turkish dishes include eggplant, green peppers, onions, lentils, beans, tomatos, garlic, and cucumber. Grapes, apricots, cherries, melon, figs, and watermelon are common fruits; and pistachios, pine nuts, almonds, hazelnuts, and walnut common nuts. Spices have a special place in Turkish cuisine, as can be observed in great variety sold at the Spice Bazaar (Mısır Çarşısı); preferred spices and herbs include parsley, cumin, pepper, paprika, mint, oregano and thyme.
Taken as a whole, Turkish cuisine is not homogenous. Aside from traditional eating habits and common Turkish specialities which can be found throughout the country, there are also region-specific specialities depending on climate and geography. The Black Sea region's cuisine (northern Turkey) is based on corn and anchovies. The southeast—Urfa, Gaziantep and Adana—is famous for its kebabs, mezes and dough-based desserts such as baklava, kadayıf and künefe. Especially in the western parts of Turkey, where olive trees are grown abundantly, olive oil is the major type of oil used for cooking.[2] The cuisines of the Aegean, Marmara and Mediterranean regions display basic characteristics of Mediterranean cuisine as they are rich in vegetables, herbs and fish. Central Anatolia is famous for its pastry specialities such as keşkek (kashkak), mantı (Kayseri) and gözleme (phyllo dough filled with minced meat, cheese and parsley, potato or spinach).
The name of specialities sometimes includes the name of a city or a region (either in Turkey or outside). This suggests that a dish is a speciality of that area, or may refer to the specific technique or ingredients used in that area. For example, the difference between Urfa kebab and Adana kebab is the use of garlic instead of onion and the larger amount of hot pepper that kebab contains.
The best flavored white cheeses and yogurt are prepared from sheep milk.
Cooked rice, pilav, is the most common accompaniment to many foods but pilav made of bulgur (boiled and pounded wheat) is also widely eaten.
Bread may be prepared from wheat, barley or corn. Pide (a broad, round and flat bread made of wheat) and tandır ekmeği (baked on the inner walls of a round oven called tandır) are typical Turkish breads. Another type of bread commonly eaten in Turkey is the ring-shaped simit or gevrek, covered with sesame seeds. Simit is eaten plain or with cheese or jelly.
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[edit] Turkish eating habits
Although fast food is gaining popularity and many major fast food chains have opened all over Turkey, at home, households still rely primarily on the rich and extensive dishes of the Turkish cuisine. In addition, in Turkey it is easy to find places where you can find traditional Turkish food which is served in the "fast food style". Especially köfte and döner places can be given as example. It should also be noted that "eating outside" has always been common in the cities of Turkey where trade is developed. Esnaf lokantası, which means restaurant of tradesman-merchant of small scale are often frequented by Turkish people. Tourists also prefer this kind of restaurants since they serve traditional Turkish homemade food and are easily affordable.
Milk-fed lambs, the most popular source of meat, have a very low yield. Meat was mostly eaten at the wedding ceremonies and during the Greater Bairam (Eid ul-Adha), usually not in the form of kebabs but as etli pilav (pilaf with meat). However, after the advent of fast-food chains all around Turkey and the introduction of industrial meat production, meat became a part of the daily diet for most Turks. Veal, which was usually shunned, became a familiar kind of meat. However, for poor families, the main use of meat at cooking is still putting kıyma (ground meat) in small amounts into vegetable dishes, thus attaining names such as kıymalı fasulye (bean with kıyma). Alternatively, in coastal towns, cheap fish such as anchovies (hamsi) is consumed. Combining meat with vegetables or rice or putting it in soups or in Turkish style salty pastries börek or gözleme is typical.
Butter or margarine, olive oil and sunflower oil are widely used for cooking. Kuyruk yağı (tail fat of sheep) is used mainly in kebabs and meat dishes. Sesame, hazelnut, walnut oils are used as well.
Plum, apricot, grape and fig are commonly used fruits (either fresh or dried) in Turkish cuisine. In the Ottoman palace cuisine, the combination of fruit with meat was quite frequent. For example, compote/hoşaf was one of the main side dishes to eat pilav or meat with. The mixture to be put in dolma or pilav most of the time contains dried grapes.
Either rice pilav or bulgur (pounded wheat pilav) and the dishes made with dry beans (nohut, mercimek, kuru fasulye, börülce combined with onion, minced meat and tomato paste) have always been the most commonplace preference of Turkish people, due to being economical and nutritious.
Turkish cuisine has a range of salty and sweet pastries. Börek is the general name for salty pastries made with yufka (a very thin layer of dough prepared by oklava). Su böreği, made with boiled yufka/phyllo layers, cheese and parsley, is the most frequently eaten. Çiğ börek (also known as Tatar böreği) is fried and stuffed with minced meat. Kol böreği is another well-known type of börek which takes its name from its arm-like shape. Poğaça is another label name for dough based salty pastries.
Breakfast in Turkish culture is a rich one due to the fact that a range of products are consumed. Cheese, butter, olives, eggs, tomatoes, green peppers, reçel (a preserve of whole fruits) and honey are the common elements of an ordinary Turkish breakfast. Sucuk (Turkish sausage, pronounced sudjuk), pastırma, börek, poğaça and even soups can be taken as a morning meal in Turkey. A common Turkish speciality for breakfast is called menemen which is prepared with roasted tomatoes, peppers, olive oil and eggs.
Yoghurt is an important element in Turkish cuisine.[2] It accompanies almost all meat (kebabs, köfte, eggplant dishes), vegetable dishes (especially fried eggplant, courgette, spinach with minced meat etc.), mezes and a speciality called mantı (dough balls containing minced meat). Mantı is always served with yoghurt. A range of spices: oregano, dried mint, sumak, and red pepper powder are added. The combination of dough balls (with minced meat inside) with yogurt differentiates it from tortellini or Chinese pasties found in wonton soup. In villages, yoghurt can be eaten with rice or bread. One of the most common Turkish drinks, ayran, is made from yogurt.
[edit] Soups
A Turkish meal usually starts with a thin soup (çorba). Soups are usually named after their main ingredient, the most common types being lentil, yogurt, or wheat (often mashed) called mercimek çorbası and tarhana çorbası. Delicacy soups are the ones that are usually not the part of the daily diet, like shkembe işkembe çorbası and paça çorbası, although the latter also used to be consumed as a nutritious winter meal. Before the popularisation of the typical Turkish breakfast, soup was the default morning meal for most households. The most common soups in Turkish cuisine are yayla, buğday aşı/yogurt soup (which can be served hot or cold), domates (tomato), ezo gelin, and düğün (wedding) soups.
[edit] Vegetable dishes
A vegetable dish is the usual main course in a Turkish meal. A large variety of vegetables is used, such as "ıspanak" spinach, pırasa leek, karnıbahar cauliflower, enginar artichoke, lahana cabbage, kereviz celery, and yerelması. A typical vegetable dish is prepared with a base of chopped onions and garlic sautéed first in olive oil and later with tomatoes or tomato paste. The vegetables or legumes and boiling water will then be added. Vegetable dishes usually tend to be served with a large amount of liquid (the cooking water), thus often called in colloquial Turkish sulu yemek ("dish with water"). Meat may occasionally be added to a vegetable dish but vegetable dishes which are cooked with olive oil and served cold zeytinyağlılar do not contain meat.
Dolma is the name used for stuffed vegetables. This is done either as the main meal or as a meze (zeytinyağlı meaning with olive oil). Many vegetables are stuffed, most typically green peppers (biber dolması), eggplants, tomatoes, courgettes (kabak dolması), vine leaves (yaprak dolması). If vine leaves are used, they are first pickled in brine. However, dolma is not limited to these common types; many other vegetables and fruits are stuffed with a meat and/or rice mixture. For example, artichoke (enginar) dolma is an Agean region specialty. Fillings used in dolmas may consist of minced meat, parts of the vegetable carved out for preparation, and/or rice with spices.
Eggplant (aubergine) has a special place in the Turkish cuisine. It is combined with minced meat in imam bayıldı and karnıyarık. As a speciality of eastern Turkey, there is patlıcan kebab. In a number of mezes, side-dishes or main dishes, eggplant appears to be the major element; şakşuka, eggplant salad, patlıcan dolma, beğendi (eggplant mash/puree) and moussaka.
Mücver is fried or cooked in the oven with minced squash/courgette or potatoes, egg, cheese and dill. Menemen consists of eggs cooked with tomatoes and green pepper. Cilbir is another traditional Turkish food made with eggs, yogurt and oil.
Turşu is pickle in brine, usually with the addition of garlic. It is often enjoyed as an appetizer. It can be made with a large variety of vegetables from cucumber to courgette. In the Aegean coast, the water of turşu is consumed as a drink.
[edit] Meats
Shish kebab (şiş, pronounced "shish", means "skewer" in Turkish) are usually marinated and grilled over an open fire. Although every kind of helal meat is consumed, lamb from milk-fed lambs is especially favored.
Iskender kebab is a type of döner kebab which was invented in Bursa. It is named after the name of its inventor, "Iskender". Döner is derived from the Turkish verb dönmek ("to turn"), as meat is cooked by turning it ahead of fire. Döner meat can be eaten in a sandwich (pita or bread) but also on pilav.
Lahmacun is a thin flatbread covered with a thin layer of spiced ground meat with onion (similar to pizza but with no cheese nor tomato sauce). The word "lahmacun" is a loanword from Arabic; it means bread with meat. Pide, which can be made with minced meat, kashar cheese, spinach, feta cheese, pieces of meat, sucuk, pastırma or/and eggs put on flatbread/dough, is one of the most common traditional Turkish specialities.
Turkish cuisine has a huge variety of kebabs and meat dishes such as: Adana - Urfa - Beyti kebabs, yoğurtlu kebab (with yogurt), fıstıklı kebab (with pistachio), patlıcanlı kebab (Gaziantep's eggplant kebab), spring kebab, oruk kebab, Ali Nazik, Hünkar Beğendi (it means that the sovereign/sultan liked it and consists of the puree of grilled aubergine with cashar cheese topped with cubed lamb meat), türlü (mixture of a range of vegetables and meat), külbastı, elbasan tava, tandır (meat cooked very slowly with a special technique), incik (lamb on the bone cooked in the oven) or çoban kavurma ("kavurma" means roasting/parching in Turkish; diced lamb cooked with tomatoes, onions, mushrooms, peppers and herbs). Moussaka can also be prepared with minced meat (minced lamb, aubergine or potatoes topped with cheese).
Also, there is a large variety of pide which is made with meat, minced meat (kıyma), kavurma (meat braised in its own fat), and kashar (cheese).
Köfte (meatball) is another meat dish in Turkey. The word köfte is sometimes accompanied with the name of place which refers to the technique for cooking it or the ingredients or spices specifically used in that region, for example; İnegöl köftesi, Sultanahmet köftesi, İzmir köfte, Akçaabat köfte, Bursa köfte, Filibe köfte etc. Its main ingredients are minced meat, parsley, bread-egg (not necessarily, usually homemade köfte includes the yellow part of the egg and some crumbled bread), and a range of spices: cumin, oregano, mint powder, red or black pepper powder, onion or garlic.
Sujuk (sucuk) is a form of raw sausage (made with beef meat and a range of spices, especially garlic, slightly similar to Spanish chorizo) commonly eaten with breakfast. Another famous beef delicacy is pastırma (see pastrami). Both pastırma and sujuk can be put in kuru fasulye (dry beans) to enrich the aroma. Instead of classical sausages (sosis), sujuk is the most used ingredient for snacks and fast-food style toasts and sandwiches in Turkey.
Kokoreç (the intestines of sheep) with spices is a traditional low-price fast food in Turkey. Mumbar is a kind of dolma, done with intestines, usually in eastern Turkey.
[edit] Fish
Turkey is surrounded by seas which contain a large variety of fish. Fish are grilled, fried or cooked slowly by the buğulama method. Buğulama is fish with lemon and parsley, covered while cooking so that it will be cooked with steam. The term Pilâki is also used for fish cooked with various vegetables, including onion in the oven. In the Black Sea region, fish are usually fried with thick corn flour. Fish are also eaten cold; as smoked (isleme) or dried (çiroz), canned, salted or pickled (lâkerda). In fish restaurants, it is possible to find fancy fish varieties like balık dolma (stuffed fish) or balık iskender (inspired by Iskender kebab). Fish soup is also eaten in coastal towns and cities. In Istanbul's Eminönü and other coastal districts, grilled fish served in bread with tomatoes, herbs and onion is a popular fast food. In the inner parts of Turkey, trout alabalık is common as it is the main type of freshwater fish. Popular sea fishes in Turkey include: anchovy hamsi, sardine sardalya, bonito palamut, gilt-head bream çupra or çipura, red mullet barbun(ya), sea bass levrek, whiting mezgit (allied to the cod fish) or bakalyaro, swordfish kılıç, turbot kalkan, red pandora mercan, tırança, and white grouper lagos.[3]
[edit] Meze
Meze is a selection of food served as the appetizer course with or without drinks or sometimes as the main course.
Frequently eaten Turkish mezes include olives, mature kaşar kashar cheese, white cheese (feta), various mixed pickles turşu, cacık (tzatziki), fried köfte (meatballs), fasulye pilaki (bean cooked with garlic, tomatoe paste, carrot and olive oil), dolma (vine leaves, cabbage leaves, peppers, courgettes, pumpkin or eggplant stuffed with rice and/or meat), Arnavut ciğeri (meaning Albanian liver), Çerkez tavuğu (meaning Circassian chicken), all kinds of börek (very thin phyllo dough staffed with cheese, meat or vegetables), humus (a word coming from Arabic and prepared from sesame, chickpea, garlic, olive oil, lemon juice), haydari, şakşuka, patlıcan salatası (eggplant salad), acılı ezme (hot spicy freshly mashed tomatoe with onion and green herbes), içli köfte (can be classified either as a meze or a main dish; especially in the eastern Turkey, when it is cooked through boiling, içli köfte is served as a main dish), çiğ köfte (hot raw meatballs with bulgur). Gözleme is a food typical in rural areas, made of lavash bread or phyllo dough folded around a variety of fillings -- spinach, cheese, meat, potatoes -- and cooked on a large griddle (traditionally saç).
In the coastal towns of Turkey, mezes prepared from seafood accompany fishes; Kalamar, Ahtapot (octopus salad), deniz börülcesi or midye dolma (mussels stuffed with rice).
[edit] Dolma
Dolma is a verbal noun of the Turkish verb dolmak 'to be stuffed', and means simply 'stuffed thing'.[4] Dolma has a special place in Turkish cuisine. It can be eaten either as a meze or a main dish. It can be cooked either as a vegetable dish or meat dish. If a meat mixture is put in, it is usually served hot with yogurt and spices such as oregano and red pepper powder with oil.
Zeytinyagli dolma is the dolma made with vine leaves cooked with olive oil and stuffed with a rice-spice mixture. Such a type does not contain meat, is served cold and sometimes referred to as Sarma which means "wrapped" in Turkish. This word is also used for some types of desserts, such as fıstık sarma (wrapped pistachio). If dolma does not contain meat, it is sometimes described as yalancı dolma meaning "fake" dolma. Dried fruit such as figs or cherries and cinnamon used to be added into the mixture to sweeten "zeytinyağlı dolma" in Ottoman cuisine. Vine leaves could be filled not only with rice and spices but also with meat and rice, in which case, it is served hot with yogurt etli yaprak sarma. Melon dolma was one of the palace's specialities (raw melon stuffed with meat and rice and cooked in an oven). Indeed it is not possible to give an exhaustive list of dolma recipies. In contemporary Turkey, a wide variety of dolma is prepared. Courgette, aubergine, tomato, pumpkin, pepper, cabbage (black or white cabbage), and mussel dolma constitute the most common types. Instead of dried cherry, dried grape is usually added into the mixture for dolma cooked with olive oil. A different type of dolma is mumbar dolması for which the membrane of intestines of sheep is filled up with a spicy rice mixture.
[edit] Desserts
One of the wordly-known desserts of Turkish cuisine is baklava. Baklava is made either with pistachio or with walnut. Turkish cuisine has a range of "baklava" like desserts which include şöbiyet, bülbül yuvası, saray sarması, sütlü nuriye etc. (http://www.gulluoglubaklava.com.tr/urun/urunler.php?kid=1).
Kadayıf is another very common Turkish dessert which differs from baklava in that phyllo dough is not used. There are different types of kadayif: tel (wire) or burma (wring) kadayif both of which can be prepared either with walnut or pistachio.
Although carrying the label "kadayif", ekmek kadayıfı is totally different from "tel kadayif" (see [1]). Künefe and ekmek kadayıfı are other specialities rich in syrup and butter. Both are usually combined with kaymak (clotted/scrambled butter) when served. Künefe contains wire kadayıf with a layer of melted cheese in between and it is served hot with pistachio or walnut.
Among milk-based deserts, the most popular ones are muhallebi, sütlaç (rice pudding), keşkül, kazandibi (meaning the bottom of "kazan" because of its burnt surface), and tavuk göğsü (a sweet, gelatinous, milk pudding dessert quite similar to kazandibi, to which very thinly peeled chicken breast is added to give a chewy texture).
Helva (halva): un helvası (usually cooked after someone has died), irmik helvasi (cooked with semolina and nuts), yaz helvası, tahin helvası, kos helva.
Other popular desserts include; Revani (with semolina and starch), şekerpare, kalburabasma, dilber dudağı, vezir parmağı, hanim gobegi, kemalpaşa, tulumba, pismaniye, zerde, höşmerim, lokma, cezerye, cevizli (walnut) sucuk, pestil (fruit pestils), güllaç (Ramadan dessert: very thin large dough layers put in the milk and rose water, served with pomegranate seeds and walnut. The story tells that in the cuisines of the Palace, those extra thin dough layers were prepared with "prayers" as it was believed that if one did not pray while opening phyllo dough, it would never be possible to obtain such thin layers of dough), paluze.
Aşure is a sweet soup containing boiled beans, wheat and dried fruits. Sometimes cinnamon and rose water is added when being served. According to legend, it was first cooked on Noah's Ark and contained seven different ingredients in one dish. All the Anatolian peoples have cooked and are still cooking aşure.
Some traditional Turkish desserts are fruit-based: ayva tatlısı (quince), incir tatlısı (fig), and kabak tatlısı (pumpkin). Walnuts, pistachios, and kaymak can be added when serving.
Homemade cookies are commonly called kurabiye in Turkish. The most known types are un kurabiyesi (flour kurabiye) and cevizli kurabiye (kurabiye with walnut).
Lokum (Turkish delight), which was eaten for digestion after meals and called "rahat hulkum" in the Ottoman era, is another well-known sweet/candy with a range of varieties.
Another jelly like Turkish sweet is macun. Mesir macunu of Manisa/İzmir (which was also called "nevruziye" as this macun was distributed on the first day of spring in the Ottoman Palace) contains 41 different spices. It is still believed that "mesir macunu" is good for health and has healing effects. As with lokum, nane macunu (prepared with mint) used to be eaten as a digestive after heavy meals. Herbs and flowers having curative effects were grown in the gardens of Topkapı under the control of the chief doctor "hekimbaşı" and pharmacists of the Palace who used those herbs for preparing special types of macun and sherbet. (Marianna Yerasimos, Ottoman Cuisine, Boyut Editions, 2002).
Kaymak (clotted cream-butter) is often served with desserts to cut the sweetness.
Tea or Turkish coffee, with or without sugar, is usually served after dinner, or, more rarely, together with desserts.
[edit] Summer diet
In the hot summer, many Turks prefer to have a lighter meal with summer vegetables and fruits. A summer meal is usually made up of fried vegetables (aubergines, potatoes, courgettes, green peppers) served with a yogurt or tomato sauce, sheep's cheese, cucumbers, tomatoes, watermelons, melons, and tahini halva. The type of halva consumed at a summer meal is named yaz helvası (summer halva), which has a lighter and less sweet taste. Sweet black tea often accompanies the summer meal, as in the style of a typical Turkish breakfast.
[edit] Beverages
Ayran (salty yogurt drink) is the most common cold beverage, which may accompany almost all dishes in Turkey.
Salgam suyu (mild or hot turnip juice) is another important non-alcoholic beverage which is usually combined with kebabs.
Boza is a traditional winter drink (served cold with cinnamon and sometimes containing leblebi).
Sahlep is another favorite in winter (served hot with cinnamon).
Although the majority of Turks profess the Islamic faith, alcoholic beverages are as widely available as in Europe. However, some Turks abstain from drinking alcohol during the holy month of Ramadan. There are a few local brands of lager such as Tekel Birasi and Marmara34 Efes and a large variety of international beers that are produced in Turkey such as Skol, Beck's, Carlsberg and Tuborg.
There are a variety of local wines produced by Turkish brands such as Kavaklıdere, Doluca, Kayra, Pamukkale and Diren which are getting more popular with the change of climatic conditions that affect the production of wine. A range of grape varieties are grown in Turkey. For the production of red wine, the following types of grapes are mainly used; in Marmara Region, Pinot Noir, Adakarası, Papazkarası, Semillion, Kuntra, Gamay, Cinsault; in Aegean Region, Carignane, Çal Karası, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Alicante Bouschet; in Black Sea Region and eastern part of the country, Öküzgözü, Boğazkere; in Central Anatolia, Kalecik Karası, Papaz Karası, Dimrit; in Mediterranean Region, Sergi Karası, Dimrit. As for white wine, the grapes can be listed as follows; in Marmara Region, Chardonnay, Riesling, Semillion, Beylerce, Yapıncak; in Aegean Region, muscat and semillion; in Black Sea Region, Narince; in Central Anatolia, Emir, Hasandede (for further info http://www.hayyam.com/uzumler/index.php). In addition to mass production, it is quite popular to produce wine in private farms and sell them in the locality. Visitors can find different "home made" wines in Central Anatolia (Kapadokya/Cappadocia region-Nevsehir), Aegean coast (Selçuk and Bozcaada(an island in the Aegean Sea)).
Rakı, a traditional alcoholic beverage flavoured with anise, is the usual drink with meze, fish or kebabs. As a matter of fact, the abolition of the monopoly of the state undertaking "TEKEL" on the production of alcoholic beverages spurred the production of Raki and wine in Turkey.
Şerbet (IPA: [ʃer'bet]) is a traditional sweet soft drink made of rose hips, cornelian cherries, rose, or licorice and spices. Some contemporary adaptations can be found at http://www.lezzet.com.tr/dosyalar/01205/. In classical Turkish cuisine, alternatively Hoşaf (IPA: [hoʃ'af]) (komposto) accompanies meat dishes and pilav.
Turkish coffee is a world-known coffee which can be served sweet or bitter. In Turkish, there is a saying that emphasizes the importance in Turkish culture of offering a cup of coffee to someone: "a cup of coffee has a 40-year consideration". (For the link between coffee beans left behind by the Ottoman Army and today's coffee shops in Vienna, take the BBC test at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4305656.stm). It should also be noted that although Arabs call their coffee Turkish coffee, it is different in aroma and taste from the classical Turkish coffee.
[edit] Bibliography
- Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London and New York, 1994 and 2000, ISBN 1-86064-603-4.
[edit] See also
- Mangal
- Turkish tea
- Turkish coffee
- Turkish rakı
- Sekerpare
- Kadaif
- Mantı
- Kumpir
- Gözleme
- Kazan dibi
- Baklava
- Elma tatlisi
- Meze
- Pilaki
- Piyaz
[edit] Related cuisines
[edit] References
- ^ Nur Ilkin - A Taste of Turkish cuisine
- ^ a b Ethnic Cuisine - Turkey by Terrie Wright Chrones
- ^ English names for fish from Alan Davidson, Mediterranean Seafood, Penguin, 1972. ISBN 0-14-046174-4
- ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Dolma
5. On olives and olive oil in Turkey and Turkish cheeses see Artun Ünsal http://kitap.antoloji.com/kisi.asp?CAS=118636
[edit] External links
- http://www.turkishfoodstore.com/
- Turkish Baklava TurkishCook.com
- Turkish Foods and Cooking
- http://www.davetci.com/yemek_ana.htm
- http://www.evyemegi.com/
- http://www.yemekicmek.com/tariflistesi.php
- http://www.gezinet.net/yiyecekicecek/Restoranlar/dunyamutfaklari/osmanli/osmanli.asp
- Recipes of some Ottoman specialities
- http://www.azeri.net/metbex
- Eating the Turkish way
- Turkish-Cypriot Cuisine - A Taste of the Mediterranean
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