印度独立运动

维基百科，自由的百科全书

印度独立运动指为将印度从英国统治下获得独立，并组建印度民族国家的一系列努力，包括从1857年直到1947年8月15日印度独立之间的范围广泛的印度政治组织、哲学和起义。

最初的1857年印度起义是在服役于英国东印度公司的英国军队和印度王國反抗英國而引起。叛亂平定後，英國把那地方分開，成為英屬印度及土邦兩地。他们试图发展起一个受教育的精英阶层，whose political organizing sought Indian political rights and representation. However, increasing public disenchantment with the British authority — their curtailing of Indian civil liberties (such as the 罗拉特法案), political rights, and culture as well as their avoidance of basic issues facing common Indians and an essential nonacceptance of foreign occupation — led to an upsurge in 革命运动 aimed at overthrowing the European colonial powers, particularly the British.

The movement came to a head between 1918 and 1922 when the first series of 非暴力(non-violent )campaigns of 公民抗命 were launched by the 国大党 under the leadership of 圣雄甘地 — whose methods were to a large extent inspired by the en:philosophy and methods of Baba 拉姆·辛格(Ram Singh), a 锡克教徒(Sikh) who led the 库卡运动(Kuka Movement) in the 旁遮普地区 in the en:1870s. Gandhi's movement came to encompass people from across India and across all walks of life. These initial civil disobedience movements soon came to be the driving force that ultimately shaped the cultural, religious, and political unity of a diverse nation.

Committing itself to 《印度独立宣言》(Purna Swaraj) in 1930, the Congress led mass struggles between 1930 and 1932. By the late 1930s, however, with growing disenchantments over the delaying tactics of the Raj and the Congress's failure to extract commitment on self-rule and political independence, a faction within the movement turned towards more radical ideas of 錢德拉·鮑斯. Bose's actions proved controversial among the Congress party but popular within 印度平民, when Bose defeated Gandhi's candidate in leadership elections in the Tripuri Session of the Congress Working Committee. However, this was the parting of ways between the radicals and the conservatives. Bose left the Congress to found his own party during the war, seeking first Soviet and then 轴心国 help to raise a liberation force. The raising of the 印度国民军(Indian National Army) in 1942 by 錢德拉·鮑斯 would see a unique military campaign to end British rule. Following the trial of 印度国民军 officers at the 德里红堡, mutinies broke out 孟买兵变(Bombay Mutiny), in the Air Force, and in the army. The Congress also led a 公民抗命 movement in 1942 demanding that the British leave India (a movement called the “退出印度运动”). Following these and widespread communal rioting in 加尔各答,1947年8月15日午夜，在分割为印度和巴基斯坦的情况下，英属印度结束了。

目录 1 欧洲的统治 2 1957年前的地区性运动 3 1857年民族大起义 3.1 结果 4 运动的风起云涌 5 印度民族主义的兴起 5.1 孟加拉分治 6 第一次世界大战期间 7 罗拉特法案及其后果 8 甘地的一代 9 丹地大游行与全民不合作 10 选举与拉合尔协定 11 革命活动 12 高潮：战争、退出印度、海军兵变与战后起义 12.1 印度国民军 12.2 退出印度运动 12.3 皇家印度海军兵变 12.4 意义 13 独立 (1947至1950年) 14 注释 15 参考 16 延伸阅读 17 外部链接

[编辑] 欧洲的统治

主条目：印度的欧洲殖民地、英国东印度公司和英属印度

欧洲商人来到印度海岸始于1498年，当时的葡萄牙冒险家瓦斯科·达伽玛抵达卡利卡特港口，寻求有利可图的香料贸易。1757年普拉西战役中，罗伯特·克莱武率领英军击败葡萄牙驻孟加拉的行政长官。自此以后，英国东印度公司的地位得到确立，普遍认为这就是英属印度时代的开始。在1765年的布克夏尔战役（Battle of Buxar）之后，公司获得全孟加拉、比哈尔和奥里萨的行政权。

[编辑] 1957年前的地区性运动

Several regional movements against foreign rule were staged in various parts of pre-1857 India. However, they were not united and were easily controlled by the foreign rulers. Examples include the 僧侣起义(Sannyasi Rebellion) in 孟加拉地区 in the 1770s,^[1] the 1787 ethnic revolt against Portuguese control of 果阿 known as the 果阿策反(Conspiracy of Goa),^[2] the revolt of 提图米尔(Titumir) in 孟加拉地区 in 1830's and uprisings by 南印度 local chieftains like 维拉潘迪亚·卡塔伯曼(Katta Bommu) against 英属印度.^[3] 其他运动包括 孟加拉地区由提图米尔领导、反抗英国殖民统治的桑塔尔人(Santal)起义 ^[4][5] 卡纳塔克邦基多尔起义(Kittur Rebellion) 、泰米尔纳德珀力加尔战争(Polygar War)和索拉什特拉地区(Saurashtra)喀奇起义(Kutch Rebellion) ^[6]

[编辑] 1857年民族大起义

主条目：印度民族起义

印度第一次的獨立革命是在1857－1858年間，在印度中部及北部地區開始燃起的。這次叛亂是因為印度士兵及英國官員之間有著文化及種族上的差異而引起。The indifference of the British towards Indian rulers like the 莫卧儿 and 前马拉地君主(Peshwa) and the en:annexation of 阿瓦德土邦(Oudh) were political factors triggering dissent amongst Indians. 詹姆斯·布龙-拉姆齐(James Broun-Ramsay)的 policy of annexation, 无嗣失权)(doctrine of lapse) or escheat, and the projected removal of the descendants of the Great Mughal from their ancestral palace to the Qutb, near Delhi also angered some people. The specific reason that triggered the rebellion was the rumoured use of cow and pig fat in .557 calibre 1853式恩菲尔德步枪 (P/53) rifle cartridges. Soldiers had to break the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their rifles. So if there was cow and pig fat, it would be offensive to Hindu and 穆斯林士兵, respectively. In February 1857, 印度兵 (Indian soldiers in the British army) refused to use their new cartridges. The British claimed to have replaced the cartridges with new ones and tried to make 印度兵 make their own grease from 蜂蜡(beeswax) and 植物油(Vegetable oils, but the rumour persisted.

In March 1857, 莽卡班迪(Mangal Pandey), a soldier of the 34th Native Infantry in 巴勒克波尔(Barrackpore，位于今北24区县境内)，attacked his British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. General Hearsay, who said Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy," ordered a 尉官(Jemadar) to arrest him but the 尉官 refused. 莽卡班迪 was hanged on en:7 April along with the 尉官. The whole regiment was dismissed as a collective punishment. On May 10th, when the 11th and 20th Cavalry assembled, they broke rank and turned on their commanding officers. They then liberated the 3rd Regiment, and on en:11 May the 印度兵 reached Delhi and were joined by other Indians. The 德里红堡(Delhi Fort), the residence of the last 莫卧尔巴沙二世皇帝, was attacked and captured by 印度兵. They demanded that he reclaim his throne. He was reluctant at first, but eventually agreed to the demands and became the leader of the rebellion.

Soon, the revolt spread throughout northern India. Revolts broke out in places like 密鲁特、詹西、坎普尔、勒克瑙 etc. The British were slow to respond, but eventually responded with brute force. British moved regiments from the 克里米亚战争 and diverted European regiments headed for 中国 to India. The British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi in Badl-ke-Serai and drove them back to Delhi before laying siege on the city. The siege of Delhi lasted roughly from en:1 July to en:31 August. After a week of street fighting, the British retook the city. The last significant battle was fought in 瓜利尔(Gwalior) on en:20 June en:1858. It was during this battle that 拉尼·拉什米拜(Rani Lakshmi Bai) was killed. Sporadic fighting continued until 1859 but most of the rebels were subdued. Some notable leaders were 艾哈迈德·乌拉(Ahmed Ullah), an advisor of the ex-King of 阿瓦德土邦; 纳纳·萨希布(Nana Sahib); his nephew Rao Sahib and his retainers, 坦提亚·多比(Tantia Topi) and Azimullah Khan; the 詹西王妃(Rani of Jhansi); 坤瓦尔·辛格(Kunwar Singh); 拉其普特人(Rajput) chief of 贾嘠地什普尔(Jagadishpur) in 比哈尔; 费鲁兹·沙哈(Firuz Saha), a relative of the 莫卧尔皇帝——巴沙二世 and 普兰·苏赫·亚达夫(Pran Sukh Yadav) who along with 拉奥·图拉·拉姆(Rao Tula Ram) of 雷瓦里(Rewari) fought with Britishers at Nasibpur, Haryana.

[编辑] 结果

The war of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India. The British abolished the British East India Company and replaced it with direct rule under the 英皇. A 總督 was appointed to represent the Crown. In proclaiming the new direct-rule policy to "the Princes, Chiefs, and Peoples of India," 維多利亞女王 promised equal treatment under British law, but Indian mistrust of British rule had become a legacy of the 1857 rebellion.

The British embarked on a program of reform and political restructuring, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government. They stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into the civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates. They also increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native ones and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery. 巴沙二世 was exiled to 仰光, 緬甸 where he died in 1862, finally bringing the 莫卧尔王朝 to an end. 1877年，維多利亞女王成為印度皇帝。

[编辑] 运动的风起云涌

主条目：:en:History of the Indian National Congress、:en:Swami Vivekananda、:en:Rabindranath Tagore、:en:Subramanya Bharathi和:en:Syed Syed Ahmed Khan

主条目：印度国大党历史、斯瓦密·维伟卡南达、罗宾德拉纳特·泰戈尔、苏比拉马尼亚·巴拉提和塞德·艾哈迈德·克汗

The decades following 印度兵 Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, manifestation of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian leadership at national and provincial levels. 达达拜·瑙罗吉(Dadabhai Naoroji) formed 东印度协会(East India Association) in 1867, and 苏伦卓纳斯·巴纳尔杰(Surendranath Banerjea) founded 东印度协会 in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by 阿兰·屋大维·休姆(Allan Octavian Hume), a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in 孟买 in 1885 and founded the 国大党. They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful western-educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as 法律, en:teaching, and en:journalism. At its inception, the Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the resources essential to a political organization. It functioned more as a debating society that met annually to express its loyalty to the British Raj and passed numerous resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government, especially the civil service. These resolutions were submitted to the Viceroy's government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were meagre. Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants from other economic backgrounds remained negligible.

The influences of socio-religious groups such as “阿利亚协会”(Arya Samaj) (started by 斯瓦密·达亚南达/Swami Dayananda) and 印度梵志会(Brahmo Samaj,founded, among others, by 拉姆·莫罕·罗伊/(Ram Mohan Roy)) became evident in pioneering reform of Indian society. The inculcation of religious reform and social pride was fundamental to the rise of a public movement for complete nationhood. The work of men like 斯瓦密·维伟卡南达(Swami Vivekananda), 斯利·拉玛克里希那·帕拉玛哈萨(Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa) ,斯利·阿罗宾多(Sri Aurobindo), 苏比拉马尼亚·巴拉提, 班吉姆·钱德拉·查特吉(Bankim Chandra Chatterjee), 塞德·艾哈迈德·克汗(Syed Ahmed Khan), 罗宾德拉纳特·泰戈尔 and 达达拜·瑙罗吉 spread the passion for rejuvenation and freedom.

By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as an all-India political organization, its achievement was undermined by its singular failure to attract 穆斯林, who felt that their representation in government service was inadequate. Attacks by Hindu reformers against religious conversion, cow slaughter, and the preservation of Urdu in Arabic script deepened their concerns of minority status and denial of rights if the Congress alone were to represent the people of India. 塞德·艾哈迈德·克汗 launched a movement for 穆斯林重建 that culminated in the founding in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at 阿里格尔(Aligarh), 北方邦 (renamed 阿里格尔伊斯兰大学(Aligarh Muslim University in 1921). Its objective was to educate wealthy students by emphasizing the compatibility of en:Islam with modern western knowledge. The diversity among India's 穆斯林, however, made it impossible to bring about uniform cultural and intellectual regeneration.

[编辑] 印度民族主义的兴起

The first spurts of nationalistic sentiment that rose amongst Congress members were when the desire to be represented in the bodies of government, to have a say, a vote in the lawmaking and issues of administration of India. Congressmen saw themselves as loyalists, but wanted an active role in governing their own country, albeit as part of the Empire. This trend was personified by 达达拜·瑙罗吉, who went as far as contesting, successfully, an election to the 英国下议院, becoming its first Indian member.

en:Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the first Indian nationalist to embrace Swaraj as the destiny of the nation. Tilak deeply opposed the British education system that ignored and defamed India's culture, history and values. He resented the denial of freedom of expression for nationalists, and the lack of any voice or role for ordinary Indians in the affairs of their nation. For these reasons, he considered Swaraj as the natural and only solution. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration for Indians.

In 1907, the Congress was split into two. Tilak advocated what was deemed as extremism. He wanted a direct assault by the people upon the British Raj, and the abandonment of all things British. He was backed by rising public leaders like en:Bipin Chandra Pal and en:Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view. Under them, India's three great states - en:Maharashtra, 孟加拉和旁遮普地区 shaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. The moderates, led by en:Gopal Krishna Gokhale, en:Pherozeshah Mehta and 达达拜·瑙罗吉 held firm to calls for negotiations and political dialogue. Gokhale criticized Tilak for encouraging acts of violence and disorder. But the Congress of 1906 did not have public membership, and thus Tilak and his supporters were forced to leave the party.

But with Tilak's arrest, all hopes for an Indian offensive were stalled. The Congress lost credit with the people, while 穆斯林 were alarmed with the rise of Tilak's en:Hindu nationalism, and formed the 全印穆斯林联盟 in 1906, considered the Congress as completely unsuitable for Indian 穆斯林. 穆斯林 deputation met with the Viceroy, Lord Minto (1905–10), seeking concessions from the impending constitutional reforms, including special considerations in government service and electorates. The British recognised some of 穆斯林联盟's petitions by increasing the number of elective offices reserved for 穆斯林 in the India Councils Act of 1909. The 穆斯林联盟 insisted on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress, as the voice of a "nation within a nation."

[编辑] 孟加拉分治

主条目：孟加拉分治 (1905年)

主条目：:en:Partition of Bengal (1905)

In 1905, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899–1905), ordered the 孟加拉分治 for improvements in administrative efficiency in that huge and populous region, where the 孟加拉 Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. The partition outraged 孟加拉人. Not only had the government failed to consult Indian public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British resolve to en:divide and rule. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of en:swadeshi. People showed unity by tying en:Rakhi on each other's wrists and observing Arandhan (not cooking any food). Actually 孟加拉 was divided on the pretext of easy administration but the real purpose was to bring religious disunity

During the 孟加拉分治 new methods of struggle were adopted. These led to swadeshi and boycott movements. The Congress-led boycott of British goods was so successful that it unleashed anti-British forces to an extent unknown since 印度兵 Rebellion. A cycle of violence and repression ensued in some parts of the country (see en:Alipore bomb case). The British tried to mitigate the situation by announcing a series of constitutional reforms in 1909 and by appointing a few moderates to the imperial and provincial councils. In what the British saw as an additional goodwill gesture, in 1911 King-Emperor George V visited India for a durbar (a traditional court held for subjects to express fealty to their ruler), during which he announced the reversal of the 孟加拉分治 and the transfer of the capital from 加尔各答 to a newly planned city to be built immediately south of Delhi, which later became en:New Delhi.

[编辑] 第一次世界大战期间

第一次世界大战 began with an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards the United Kingdom, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in en:Europe, 非洲, and the 中东, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. But high casualty rates, soaring inflation compounded by heavy taxation, a widespread en:influenza epidemic, and the disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India. The Indian soldiers smuggled arms into India to overthrow the British rule. The prewar nationalist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups within the Congress submerged their differences in order to stand as a unified front. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the en:Lucknow Pact, a temporary alliance with the 穆斯林联盟 over the issues of devolution of political power and the future of Islam in the region.

The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during the war and in response to renewed nationalist demands. In August 1917, Edwin Montagu, the secretary of state for India, made the historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy for India was "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act of 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which both elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. The act also expanded the central and provincial legislatures and widened the franchise considerably. Diarchy set in motion certain real changes at the provincial level: a number of non-controversial or "transferred" portfolios, such as en:agriculture, local government, en:health, en:education, and public works, were handed over to Indians, while more sensitive matters such as en:finance, en:taxation, and maintaining law and order were retained by the provincial British administrators.

[编辑] 罗拉特法案及其后果

主条目：:en:Jallianwala Bagh massacre

The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the 罗拉特法案, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission, which had been appointed to investigate "seditious conspiracy." The 罗拉特法案, also known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work (hartal) was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent. The agitation unleashed by the acts culminated on 13 April 1919, in the Amritsar Massacre (also known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre) in Amritsar, Punjab. The British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, ordered his soldiers to fire into an unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of some 10,000 people. They had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled garden, to celebrate Baisakhi, a 锡克教 festival, without prior knowledge of the imposition of martial law. A total of 1,650 rounds were fired, killing 379 (as per government estimate, actual figure believed to be above 1000) people and wounding 1,137 in the episode, which dispelled wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill in a frenzy of post-war reaction.

[编辑] 甘地的一代

主条目：聖雄甘地和不合作運動

It can be argued that the movement, even towards the end of First World War, was far removed from the masses of India, focussing essentially on a unified commerce-oriented territory and a far cry from the calls for an united nation, that came in the 1930s. Possibly one of the factors that brought this movement to the masses was the entry of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in Indian Politics in 1915.

Gandhi had been a prominent leader of 南非反种族隔离运动 and had been vocal basic discrimination and abusive labour treatment as well as suppressive police control akin to the 罗拉特法案. During these protests Gandhi had perfected the concept of 不合作主义(satyagraha), on which he had been inspired by the philosophy of Baba 拉姆·辛格(famous for leading the 库卡运动 in the 旁遮普地区 in 1872). The end of the protests in the country saw repeal of the legislations and release of political prisoners by 简·斯穆茨(Jan Smuts)将军, head of the South African Government of the time.

However Gandhi, a stranger to India and its politics after twenty years, had initially entered the fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified commmerce-oriented territory, that the Congress Party had been asking for. Gandhi, however, was of the opinion that the industrial development and educational development that the Europeans brought with them was required to uplift India's problems. A veteran Congressman and Indian leader en:Gopal Krishna Gokhale became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent 公民抗命 initially appeared impractical to some Indians and veteran Congressmen. In Gandhi's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of unmoral statutory enactments," but as he viewed it, it had to be carried out non-violently by withdrawing cooperation with the corrupt state. Gandhi's ability to inspire millions of common people was initiated when he used 不合作主义 during the anti-罗拉特法案 protests in Punjab.

Gandhi’s vision would soon bring the population of millions into the movement. In en:Champaran, en:Bihar, the Congress Party brought forth the plight of desperately poor sharecroppers, landless farmers who were being forced to grow cash crops at the expense of crops which formed their food supply, and pay oppressive taxes. Neither were they sufficiently paid for sustenance. It was at this time also that the nationalist cause was integrated to the interests and industries that formed the economy of common Indians. The first 非暴力抵抗运动 urged the use of en:Khadi and Indian material as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged the boycott of British educational institutions and law courts; to resign from government employment; to refuse to pay taxes; and to forsake British titles and honours. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new Government of India Act of 1919, the magnitude of disorder resulting from the movement was unparalleled and presented a new challenge to foreign rule. These movements found widespread support among a people awakening to a new sense of nationalism. However, the movement was called off by Gandhi following the en:Chauri Chaura incident, which saw the death of twenty two policemen in the hands of an angry mob.

In 1920, the Congress was reorganized and given a new constitution, whose goal was Swaraj (independence) ^{[來源請求]}. Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, and a hierarchy of committees was established and made responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse movement. The party was transformed from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal and participation.

Gandhi was imprisoned in 1922 for six years, but was released after serving two. On his release from prison, he set up the en:Sabarmati Ashram in en:Ahmedabad, on the banks of river Sabarmati, established the newspaper Young India, and inaugurated a series of reforms aimed at the socially disadvantaged within Hindu society - the rural poor, and the untouchables.

This era saw the emergence of new generation of Indians from within the Congress Party, including en:C. Rajagopalachari, en:Jawaharlal Nehru, en:Vallabhbhai Patel, en:Subhash Chandra Bose and others- who would later on come to form the prominent voices of the Indian Independence Movement, whether keeping with Gandhian Values, or diverging from it.

The Indian political spectrum was further broadened in the mid-1920s by the emergence of both moderate and militant parties, such as the en:Swaraj Party, en:Hindu Mahasabha, en:Communist Party of India and the en:Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. Regional political organizations also continued to represent the interests of non-en:Brahmins in en:Madras, en:Mahars in en:Maharashtra, and 锡克教徒 in Punjab.

[编辑] 丹地大游行与全民不合作

主条目：:en:Salt Satyagraha

Following the rejection of the recommendations of the en:Simon Commission by Indians, an all-party conference was held at 孟买 in May 1928. The conference appointed a drafting committee under en:Motilal Nehru to draw up a constitution for India. The 加尔各答 session of the Indian National Congress asked the British government to accord dominion status to India by December 1929, or a countrywide civil disobedience movement would be launched. The Indian National Congress, at its historic en:Lahore session in December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, adopted a resolution to gain complete independence from the British. It authorised the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement throughout the country. It was decided that en:26 January en:1930 should be observed all over India as the《印度独立宣言》，complete independence) Day. Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of a wide spectrum united to observe the day with honour and pride.

Gandhi emerged from his long seclusion by undertaking his most famous campaign, a march of about 400 kilometres from his commune in en:Ahmedabad to Dandi, on the coast of en:Gujarat between en:12 March and en:6 April, en:1930. The march is usually known as the Dandi March or the Salt Satyagraha. At Dandi, in protest against British taxes on salt, he and thousands of followers broke the law by making their own salt from seawater.

In April 1930 there were violent police-crowd clashes in 加尔各答. Approximately over 100,000 people were imprisoned in the course of the Civil disobedience movement (1930-31), while in en:Peshawar unarmed demonstrators were fired upon in the en:Qissa Khwani bazaar massacre. The latter event catapulted the then newly formed en:Khudai Khidmatgar movement (founder en:Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Frontier Gandhi) onto the National scene. While Gandhi was in jail, the first en:Round Table Conference was held in London in November 1930, without representation from the Indian National Congress. The ban upon the Congress was removed because of economic hardships caused by the 不合作主义. Gandhi, along with other members of the Congress Working Committee, was released from prison in January 1931.

In March of 1931, the en:Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, and the government agreed to set all political prisoners free (Although, some of the key revolutionaries were not set free and the death sentence for Bhagat Singh and his two comrades was not taken back which further intensened the agitation against Congress not only outside it but with in the Congress it self). In return, Gandhi agreed to discontinue the civil disobedience movement and participate as the sole representative of the Congress in the second Round Table Conference, which was held in London in September 1931. However, the conference ended in failure in December 1931. Gandhi returned to India and decided to resume the civil disobedience movement in January 1932.

For the next few years, the Congress and the government were locked in conflict and negotiations until what became the en:Government of India Act of 1935 could be hammered out. By then, the rift between the Congress and the 穆斯林联盟 had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the other acrimoniously. The 穆斯林联盟 disputed the claim of the Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the 穆斯林联盟's claim to voice the aspirations of all 穆斯林.

[编辑] 选举与拉合尔协定

主条目：:en:Lahore Resolution

主条目：拉合尔协定

The en:Government of India Act 1935, the voluminous and final constitutional effort at governing en:British India, articulated three major goals: establishing a loose federal structure, achieving provincial autonomy, and safeguarding minority interests through separate electorates. The federal provisions, intended to unite en:princely states and British India at the centre, were not implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing privileges of princes. In February 1937, however, provincial autonomy became a reality when elections were held; the Congress emerged as the dominant party with a clear majority in five provinces and held an upper hand in two, while the 穆斯林联盟 performed poorly.

In 1939, the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declared India's entrance into en:World War II without consulting provincial governments. In protest, the Congress asked all of its elected representatives to resign from the government. en:Jinnah, the president of the 穆斯林联盟(Muslim League), persuaded participants at the annual 穆斯林联盟 session at en:Lahore in 1940 to adopt what later came to be known as the en:Lahore Resolution, demanding the division of India into two separate sovereign states, one 穆斯林, the other en:Hindu; sometimes referred to as en:Two Nation Theory. Although the idea of en:Pakistan had been introduced as early as 1930, very few had responded to it. However, the volatile political climate and hostilities between the Hindus and 穆斯林 transformed the idea of Pakistan into a stronger demand.

[编辑] 革命活动

主条目：:en:Revolutionary movement for Indian independence

主条目：印度独立革命运动

Apart from a few stray incidents, the armed rebellion against the British rulers was not organized before the beginning of the 20th century. The revolutionary philosophies and movement made their presence felt during the 1905年的孟加拉分治. Arguably, the initial steps to organize the revolutionaries were taken by en:Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother Barin Ghosh, en:Bhupendranath Datta etc. when they formed the en:Jugantar party in April 1906.^[7] en:Jugantar was created as an inner circle of the en:Anushilan Samiti which was already present in 孟加拉 mainly as a revolutionary society in the guise of a fitness club.

The en:Jugantar party leaders like Barin Ghosh and en:Bagha Jatin initiated making of explosives. The en:Alipore bomb case, following the Muzaffarpur killing tried several activists and many were sentenced to deportation for life, while en:Khudiram Bose was hanged. en:Madan Lal Dhingra, a student in London, murdered Sir Curzon Wylie, a British M.P. on en:1 July en:1909 in en:London.

The Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar opened several branches throughout 孟加拉 and other parts of en:India and recruited young men and women to participate in the revolutionary activities. Several murders and looting were done, with many revolutionaries being captured and imprisoned. During the en:First World War, the revolutionaries planned to import arms and ammunitions from en:Germany and stage an armed revolution against the British.^[8]

The en:Ghadar Party operated from abroad and cooperated with the revolutionaries in India. This party was instrumental in helping revolutionaries inside India catch hold of foreign arms.

After the First World War, the revolutionary activities suffered major setbacks due to the arrest of prominent leaders. In the 1920s, revolutionary activists began to reorganize. en:Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was formed under the leadership of en:Chandrasekhar Azad. en:Bhagat Singh and en:Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central Legislative Assembly on en:8 April en:1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill. Following the trial (Central Assembly Bomb Case), en:Bhagat Singh, en:Sukhdev and en:Rajguru were hanged in 1931. en:Allama Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to direct particularly 穆斯林 towards the independence movement.^[9]

en:Surya Sen, along with other activists, raided the en:Chittagong armoury on en:18 April en:1930 to capture arms and ammunition and to destroy government communication system to establish a local governance. en:Pritilata Waddedar led an attack on a European club in en:Chittagong in 1932, while en:Bina Das attempted to assassinate en:Stanley Jackson, the Governor of 孟加拉 inside the convocation hall of 加尔各答大学(Calcutta University). Following the en:Chittagong armoury raid case, en:Surya Sen was hanged and several others were deported for life to the en:Cellular Jail in en:Andaman. 孟加拉志愿者(Bengal Volunteers) started operating in 1928. On en:8 December en:1930, the Benoy-Badal-Dinesh trio of the party entered the secretariat en:Writers' Building in en:Kolkata and murdered Col. N. S. Simpson, the Inspector General of Prisons.

On en:13 March en:1940, en:Udham Singh shot Sir en:Michael O'Dwyer, generally held responsible for the en:Amritsar Massacre, in London. However, as the political scenario changed in the late 1930s — with the mainstream leaders considering several options offered by the British and with religious politics coming into play — revolutionary activities gradually declined. Many past revolutionaries joined mainstream politics by joining 国大党 and other parties, especially communist ones, while many of the activists were kept under hold in different jails across the country.

[编辑] 高潮：战争、退出印度、海军兵变与战后起义

Indians throughout the country were divided over en:World War II, as the Lord Linlithgow, without consulting the Indian representatives had unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of the en:allies. In opposition to Linlithgow's action, the entire congress leadership resigned from the local government councils. However, many wanted to support the British war effort, and indeed the British Indian Army was one of the largest volunteer force during the war.^{[來源請求]} Especially during the en:Battle of Britain, Gandhi resisted calls for massive civil disobedience movements that came from within as well as outside his party, stating he did not seek India's freedom out of the ashes of a destroyed Britain. However, like the changing fortunes of the war itself, the movement for freedom saw the rise of two movements that formed the climax of the 100-year struggle for independence.

The first of these, the en:Azad Hind movement led by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, saw its inception early in the war and sought help from the en:Axis Powers. The second saw its inception in August 1942 led by Gandhi and began following failure of the en:Cripps' mission to reach a consensus with the Indian political leadership over the transfer of power after the war.

[编辑] 印度国民军

主条目：印度国民军、:en:Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind和錢德拉·鮑斯

The arbitrary entry of India into the war was strongly opposed by 錢德拉·鮑斯, who had been elected President of the Congress twice, in 1937 and 1939. After lobbying against participation in the war, he resigned from Congress in 1939 and started a new party, the en:All India Forward Bloc. When war broke out, the Raj had put him under house arrest in 加尔各答 in 1940. However, at the time the war was at its bloodiest in Europe and Asia, he escaped and made his way through en:Afghanistan to Germany to seek 轴心国 help to raise an army to fight the shackles of the Raj. Here, he raised with Rommel's Indian PoWs what came to be known as the en:Free India Legion. This came to be the conceptualisation in embryonic form of Bose's dream of raising a liberation Army to fight the Raj. However, the turn of tides in the Battlefields of Europe saw Bose make his way ultimately to Japanese South Asia where he formed what came to be known as the en:Azad Hind Government as the Provisional Free Indian Government in exile, and organized the 印度国民军 with Indian en:POWs and Indian en:expatriates at en:South-East Asia, with the help of the en:Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to inspire revolts among Indian soldiers to defeat the Raj.

The INA was to see action against the allies, including the British Indian Army, in the forests of in Arakan, en:Burma and en:Assam, laying siege on Imphal and Kohima with the Japanese 15th Army. During the war, the en:Andaman and Nicobar islands were captured by the Japanese and handed over by them to the INA; Bose renamed them Shahid (Martyr) and Swaraj (Independence).

The INA would ultimately fail, owing to disrupted logistic, poor arms and supplies from the Japanese, and lack of support and training.[1] The supposed death of Bose is seen as culmination of the entire Azad Hind Movement. Following the surrender of Japan, the troops of the INA were brought to India and a number of them charged with treason. However, Bose's audacious actions and radical initiative had by this time captured the public imagination and also turned the inclination of the native soldiers of the British Indian Forces from one of loyalty to the crown to support for the soldiers that the Raj deemed as collaborators.^[10][11]

After the war, the stories of the en:Azad Hind movement and its army that came into public limelight during the trials of soldiers of the INA in 1945 were seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings — not just in India, but across its empire — the British Government forbid the en:BBC from broadcasting their story.^[12] Newspapers reported the summary execution of INA soldiers held at 德里红堡.^[13] During and after the trial, 孟买兵变 in the en:British Indian Armed forces, most notably in the Royal Indian Navy which found public support throughout en:India, from en:Karachi to 孟买 and from en:Vizag to 加尔各答.^[14][15][16] Many historians have argued that it was the INA and the mutinies it inspired among the British Indian Armed forces that were the true driving force for India's independence.^[17][18][19]

[编辑] 退出印度运动

主条目：退出印度运动

主条目：:en:Quit India Movement

The 退出印度运动 (Bharat Chhodo Andolan) or the August Movement was a 公民抗命 movement in 印度 launched in en:August 1942年 in response to 甘地's call for immediate independence of India.

At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had during the Wardha meeting of the working-committee in September en:1939, passed a resolution conditionally supporting the fight against fascism,^[20] but were rebuffed when they asked for independence in return. In March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent only reluctantly participating in the war, and deteriorations in the war situation in en:Europe and en:South East Asia, and with growing dissatisfactions among Indian troops- especially in Europe- and among the civilian population in the sub-continent, the British government sent a delegation to India under en:Stafford Cripps, in what came to be known as the en:Cripp's Mission. The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the 国大党 a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war, in return of proggressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the en:Viceroy to elected Indian legislature. However, the talks failed, having failed to address the key demand of a timeframe towards self-government, and of definition of the powers to be relinquished, essentially portraying an offer of limited dominion-status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement.^[21] To force the Raj to meet its demands and to obtain definitive word on total independence, the Congress took the decision to launch the 退出印度运动.

The aim of the movement was to bring the British Government to the negotiating table by holding the Allied War Effort hostage. The call for determined but en:passive resistance that signified the certitude that Gandhi foresaw for the movement is best described by his call to Do or Die, issued on en:8 August at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in 孟买, since re-named August Kranti Maidan (August Revolution Ground). However, almost the entire Congress leadership, and not merely at the national level, was put into confinement less than twenty-four hours after Gandhi's speech, and the greater number of the Congress leaders were to spend the rest of the war in jail.

On en:August 8 en:1942 the Quit India resolution was passed at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC). The draft proposed that if the British did not accede to the demands, a massive Civil Disobedience would be launched. However, it was an extremely controversial decision. At Gowalia Tank, en:Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to follow a non-violent civil disobedience. Gandhi told the masses to act as an independent nation and not to follow the orders of the British. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India–Burma border, responded the next day by imprisoning Gandhi at the en:Aga Khan Palace in en:Pune. The Congress Party's Working Committee, or national leadership was arrested all together and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort. They also banned the party altogether. Large-scale protests and demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. The movement also saw widespread acts of en:sabotage, Indian under-ground organisation carried out bomb attcks on allied supply convoys, government buildings were set on fire, electricity lines were disconnected and transport and communication lines were severed. The Congress had lesser success in rallying other political forces, including the 穆斯林联盟 under a single mast and movement. It did however, obtain passive support from a substantial 穆斯林 population at the peak of the movement.

The British swiftly responded by mass detentions. A total over 100,000 arrests were made nationwide, mass fines were levied, bombs were airdropped^{[來源請求]} and demonstrators were subjected to public flogging.

The movement soon became a leaderless act of defiance, with a number of acts that deviated from Gandhi's principle of non-violence. In large parts of the country, the local underground organisations took over the movement. However, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.

[编辑] 皇家印度海军兵变

主条目：:en:The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny

主条目：皇家印度海军兵变

皇家印度海军兵变（或孟买兵变）是1946年2月18日，皇家印度海军的印度船员（船上和岸上）在孟买港举行的大罢工以及后来的兵变。兵变最初局限于孟买，以后传播到整个印度，从卡拉奇到加尔各答，最后扩展到20个岸上设施，78艘船，20,000名船员。

2月18日，皇家印度海军兵变开始时是为了抗议皇家印度海军的等级制度的罢工，兵变的直接目的是改善条件和食物，但更多的是由于皇家海军的英国军官对待印度船员种族主义行为，以及纪律措施 being taken against anyone demonstrating pro-nationalist sympathies. 罢工得到印度人的广泛支持 already in grips with the stories of 印度國民軍。孟买进行一天的总罢工，支持反抗者的行动。罢工蔓延到其他城市，空军和孟买警察也加入了进去。海军军官开始calling themselves the 印度海軍and offered left handed salutes to 英国军官。在一些地方，NCOs in 不列颠印度军队藐视英国上司的命令。马德拉斯和浦那，英国驻军必须面对不列颠印度军队普通士兵的反抗。从卡拉奇到加尔各答都发生了骚动。Famously 军舰上升起了3面旗帜 — Congress, 穆斯林联盟,印度共产党的红旗, signifying the unity and demarginalisation of 共同體 issues among the mutineers.

[编辑] 意义

The true judgment of contributions of each of these individual events and revolts to India’s eventual independence, and the relative success or failure of each, remains open to historians. Some historians claim that the 退出印度运动 was ultimately a failure^[22] and ascribe more to the destabilisation of the pillar of British power in India —- the British Indian Armed forces. Certainly the British Prime Minister at the time of Independence, en:Clement Atlee, deemed the contribution of Quit India as minimal, ascribing stupendous importance to the revolts and growing dissatisfaction among Royal Indian Armed Forces as the driving force behind the Raj’s decision to leave India^[23][24]. Some Indian historians however argue that, in fact, it was Quit India that succeeded^{[來源請求]}. In support of the latter view, without doubt, the War had sapped a lot of the economic, political and military life-blood of the Empire, and the powerful Indian resistance had shattered the spirit and will of the British government. However, such historians effectively ignore the contributions of the radical movements to transfer of power in en:1947. Regardless of whether it was the powerful common call for resistance among Indians that shattered the spirit and will of the en:British Raj to continue ruling India, or whether it was the ferment of rebellion and resentment among the British Indian Armed Forces^[25][26] what is beyond doubt, is that a population of millions had been motivated as it never had been before to say ultimately that independence was a non-negotiable goal, and every act of defiance and rebel only stoked this fire. In addition, the British people and the British Army seemed unwilling to back a policy of repression in India and other parts of the Empire even as their own country lay shattered by the war's ravages.

[编辑] 独立 (1947至1950年)

主条目：印度历史和印巴分治

1947年6月3日，最后一任印度总督路易斯·蒙巴顿子爵宣布英属印度分割为印度和穆斯林的巴基斯坦。8月15日（印度独立日）的午夜，印度成为一个独立国家，随后发生了印度教徒、穆斯林和锡克教徒之间的暴力冲突。尼赫鲁首相及副首相沙達·瓦拉漢·佩帖爾邀请蒙巴顿继续擔任印度总督。1948年6月，查克拉瓦爾蒂·拉賈戈巴拉查理取代了他，成為新一任的印度總督。佩帖爾 took on the responsibility of unifying 565 princely states, steering efforts by his “iron fist in a velvet glove” policies, exemplified by the use of military force to integrate 居那加德, 查謨-克什米爾邦, and 海得拉巴邦 into India.

The Constituent Assembly completed the work of drafting the constitution on 26 November 1949; on 26 January 1950 the Republic of India was officially proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first President of India, taking over from Governor General Rajgopalachari. Subsequently, a free and sovereign India absorbed two other territories: 果阿 (from Portuguese control in 1961) and Pondicherry (which the French ceded in 1953–1954）。1952年，印度进行了首次大选，投票率超过62%，产生了世界最大的民主国家。

[编辑] 注释

[编辑] 参考

本條目含有部份來自美國國會圖書館的國家研究資料。這些資料由美國聯邦政府於公共領域出版。

• Library of Congress
• Forest，G W. The Indian Mutiny 1857–1858. ISBN 81-7536-196-4.
• Nehru，Jawaharlal. Discovery of India. ISBN 0-19-562359-2.
• 甘地，Mohandas. An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth. ISBN 0-8070-5909-9.
• Collins，Larry. Freedom at Midnight，Dominique Lapierre. ISBN 0-00-638851-5.
• Sofri，Gianni (1995–1999). Gandhi and India: A Century in Focus，Janet Sethre Paxia (translator)，English edition translated from the Italian，Gloucestershire: The Windrush Press. ISBN 1-900624-12-5.
• Seal，Anil (1968). Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century. ISBN 0-521-06274-8.
• Ashman, Sam (December 1997). "India: Imperialism, partition and resistance". International Socialism (77).

[编辑] 延伸阅读

• Majumdar, R. C. History of the Freedom movement in India ISBN 0-8364-2376-3

the country is under rule

[编辑] 外部链接

• Allama Mashriqi
• Origin of Non-Violence
• Independence movement
• 圣雄甘地
• Indian Government
• Raja Mahendapratap
• Timeline of Indian Independence Movement
• Truth behind 1857 parts I, II & III