Architecture
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- For other uses, see Architecture (disambiguation).
Architecture (from Latin, architectura and ultimately from Greek, "a master builder", from αρχι- "chiefs, leader" , "builder, carpenter")[1] is the art and science of designing buildings and structures.
A wider definition would include within its scope also the design of the total built environment, from the macrolevel of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the microlevel of creating furniture. Architectural design usually must address both feasibility and cost for the builder, as well as function and aesthetics for the user.
Planned architecture often manipulates space, volume, texture, light, shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing aesthetics. This distinguishes it from applied science or engineering, which usually concentrate more on the functional and feasibility aspects of the design of constructions or structures.
In the field of building architecture, the skills demanded of an architect range from the more complex, such as for a hospital or a stadium, to the apparently simpler, such as planning residential houses. Many architectural works may be seen also as cultural and political symbols, and/or works of art. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes less than successful) design and implementation of pleasingly built environments in which people live.
Romans absorbed brightness and rituals based in Greek Architecture; the Temple and all Gods, the Ágora (specific place for special or casual meeting), and, building the Colosseum of Rome, they represent all orders, Doric, Ionic e Corinthian.
Le Corbusier said: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: "This is beautiful. That is Architecture. Art enters in..."[2]
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[edit] Scope
According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject, Vitruvius' De architectura, good buildings satisfy three core principles: Firmness, Commodity, and Delight;[3] architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. A modern-day definition sees architecture as addressing aesthetic, structural, functional and sustainability considerations. However, looked at another way, function itself is seen as encompassing all criteria, including aesthetic, psychological, and cultural ones. Delight, on the other hand, is a very controversial principle which is disputed by critics due to the fluidity of the term as well as being subject to infinite interpretations by the viewer or others - beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
Most modern-day definitions of "good buildings" recognize that because architecture does not exist in a vacuum, architectural form cannot be merely a compilation of historical precedent, functional necessities, and socially aware concerns, but must also be a transcendent synthesis of all of the former and a creation of worth in and of itself. As Nunzia Rodanini stated, “Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development. To restrict the meaning of (architecture) formalism to art for art’s sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality”. The values and its accompanying aspects which modern architecture is based on vary, both between different architectural schools of thought and among practising architects.[4]
Architecture is an interdisciplinary field, drawing upon mathematics, science, art, technology, social sciences, politics, history, and philosophy. Vitruvius states: "Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts." He adds that an architect should be well versed in fields such as music and astronomy. Philosophy is a particular favourite; in fact the approach of an architect to their subject is often called their philosophy. Rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology are some topics from philosophy that have influenced architecture.
In modern usage, architecture is the art and discipline of creating an actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object or system. The term can be used to connote the implied architecture of abstract things such as music or mathematics, the apparent architecture of natural things, such as geological formations or the structure of biological cells, or explicitly planned architectures of human-made things such as software, computers, enterprises, and databases, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the user in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the elements or components of some kind of structure or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components.
[edit] Architectural history
Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.
Early human settlements were essentially rural. As surplus of production began to occur, rural societies transformed into urban ones and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians' architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as Iran architecture and urban planning was used to exemplify the power of the state.
However, the architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilisations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from more civic ideas and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed and texts on architecture began to be written. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are the works of Vitruvius, the Kaogongji of ancient China and Vaastu Shastra in ancient India. In Europe in the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individual architects; the architects usually remained anonymous. Guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.
Islamic architecture has a long and complex history beginning in the seventh century CE. Examples can be found throughout the countries that are, or were, Islamic - from Morocco and Spain to Turkey, Iran and Pakistan. Other examples can be found in areas where Muslims are a minority. Islamic architecture includes mosques, madrasas, caravansarais, palaces, and mausolea of this large region.
With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Zielinski, Leonardo da Vinci - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
With the consolidation of knowledge in scientific fields such as BROADineering and the rise of new materials and technology, the architect began to lose ground on the technical aspects of building. He therefore cornered for himself another playing field - that of aesthetics. There was the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes. In the 19th century Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, the training was toward producing quick sketch schemes involving beautiful drawings without much emphasis on context..
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass consumption and aesthetics started becoming a criterion even for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.
The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that in architecture served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after WW I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. Their approach reduced buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. The classical columns, arches, and details of Classical architecture were rejected in favor of modern materials and forms. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as Mies van der Rohe worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution.
Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the International Style lost influence in the late 1970's, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.
Another part of the profession, and also some non-architects, responded by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Chris Jones, Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioural, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.
As many other concerns began to be recognised and complexity of buildings began to increase in terms of aspects such as services, architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture now required a team of professionals in its making, an architect being one among the many, and sometimes the leader. This is the state of the profession today. However, individuality is still cherished and sought for in the design of buildings seen as cultural symbols - the museum or fine arts centre has become a showcase for new experiments in style: today one style, tomorrow maybe something else.
[edit] References
- ^ Online Etymology of the term "architect"
- ^ (Vers une architecture, 1923)
- ^ Translation of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis [1] due to Henry Wotton, 1624 [2]
- ^ Rondanini, Nunzia “Architecture and Social Change” Heresies II, Vol. 3, No. 3, New York, Neresies Collective Inc., 1981, p. 4
[edit] List of Architectural Styles
- Neolithic architecture
- Egyptian architecture
- Assyrian architecture
- Babylonian architecture
- Etruscan architecture
- Minoan architecture
- Maya architecture
- Mycenaean architecture
- Persian architecture
- Sumerian architecture
- African Architecture
- Chinese architecture
- Indian architecture
- Newari architecture
- Islamic architecture
- Japanese architecture
- Architecture of the Pacific
- Mesoamerican architecture
- Classical architecture
- Medieval architecture
- Renaissance architecture
- Baroque architecture
- Regency architecture
- Neo-Classical architecture
- Neo-Gothic architecture
- Neo-Byzantine architecture
- Neo-Romanesque architecture
- Jacobethan architecture
- Tudorbethan architecture
- Beaux-Arts architecture
- Modern architecture
- Postmodern architecture
- Australian architectural styles
- Canadian architecture
- Indonesian architecture
- Origamic Architecture (OA)
- Spanish architecture
- Temple architecture (Latter-day Saints)
- Pet architecture
- Follies, Grottoes and Garden architecture
- Mexican architects
[edit] See also
- Main lists: List of basic architecture topics and List of architecture topics
[edit] External links
- Architectural Centre
- Architectural Practice Directories
- Reference
- Directory of World Architects — in English and in Russian
- All About Skyscrapers, the official guide to skyscraper related information.
- Arcat - Find building product information, specifications and cad details.
- Archinect - Architecture news, jobs, features, links, image galleries, student blogs and discussions
- Archinform - International Architecture Database
- Architecture.com - Courtesy of the Royal Institute of British Architects
- Architecture-PAGE - International Architecture and Design resource from India
- Architypes - Wiki of architecture design principles and patterns
- ArchNet - International online community for architects
- Archpedia - architecture encyclopedia
- Glossary of Architecture - Residential
- Danda - News and reviews on architecture
- Dexigner architecture design news
- Architecture 3D Model Resource
- RE. Design and architecture news
- Discover a Hobby: Online guide for learning about Architecture
- ArchiQuotes - Gallery of Architectural Quotations
- TerritorioScuola ODP - Architecture Resources
- Architecture in Australia - State Library of NSW
- House Plans, Blue Prints, and Floor Plans from eplans.com
- VB Architects & Interior designers
- Professional organizations
- American Institute of Architects
- Boston Architectural College
- Boston Society of Architects
- New Zealand Institute of Architects
- The Pritzker Architecture Prize
- Royal Australian Institute of Architects
- Royal Institute of British Architects
- Society of Architectural Historians
- Society of Architectural Historians Australia and New Zealand
- Architects' Association of Israel
- Royal Architectural Institute of Canada
- Buildings and structures (refer to : Category:Buildings and structures)
- Cities and Buildings Database - From the University of Washington
- Cupola - Building and Structure Photo Galleries
- Emporis Buildings - Free Building Database
- Galinsky - People enjoying buildings worldwide
- Global Architecture Encyclopedia - Glass Steel and Stone
- Great Buildings Collection
- Vitruvio
- SPIRO: Architecture Slide Library, from the University of California at Berkeley
- Regional architectures
- Russian architects directory
- Contemporary architecture of Russia
- Barcelona Architecture - Catalan architecture and catalan architects
- University of Washington Libraries: Digital Collections:
- Dearborn-Massar Photographs Over 1200 images chosen from a group of approximately 6000 photographic prints representing the work of some of the most well known architects in the Pacific Northwest.
- Architecture of the Pacific Northwest Collection This database contains selected architectural drawings from the Pacific Northwest Architecture Collection representing regionally significant architects and designers spanning the period from the 1880’s into the 1980's.
- Mediterranean Architecture
- World arab - a charity website build to improve the Arabic knowledge about architecture- art and design
| Architecture of Europe |
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Albania · Andorra · Austria · Azerbaijan1 · Belarus · Belgium · Bosnia and Herzegovina · Bulgaria · Croatia · Czech Republic · Denmark · Estonia · Finland · France · Georgia1 · Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy · Latvia · Liechtenstein · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Republic of Macedonia · Malta · Moldova · Monaco · Montenegro · Netherlands · Norway · Poland · Portugal · Romania · Russia1 · San Marino · Serbia · Slovakia · Slovenia · Spain · Sweden · Switzerland · Turkey1 · Ukraine · United Kingdom Dependencies, autonomies and other territories 1 Has significant territory in Asia. |
| Architecture of Asia |
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Afghanistan · Armenia · Azerbaijan · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Cambodia · China (People's Republic of China (Hong Kong · Macau) · Republic of China (Taiwan)) · Cyprus · East Timor · Georgia · India · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Israel (See also Palestinian territories) · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan · Korea (North Korea · South Korea) · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Myanmar · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Thailand · Turkey · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen |
| Architecture of Africa |
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Algeria · Angola · Benin · Botswana · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cameroon · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Comoros · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) · Djibouti · Egypt · Equatorial Guinea · Eritrea · Ethiopia · Gabon · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Kenya · Lesotho · Liberia · Libya · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Morocco · Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Nigeria · Rwanda · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Seychelles · Sierra Leone · Somalia · South Africa · Sudan · Swaziland · Tanzania · Togo · Tunisia · Uganda · Zambia · Zimbabwe Dependencies and other territories |
| Architecture of North America |
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Antigua and Barbuda · Bahamas · Barbados · Belize · Canada · Costa Rica · Cuba · Dominica · Dominican Republic · El Salvador · Grenada · Guatemala · Haiti · Honduras · Jamaica · Mexico · Nicaragua · Panama · Saint Kitts and Nevis · Saint Lucia · Saint Vincent and the Grenadines · Trinidad and Tobago · United States Dependencies and other territories |
| Architecture of South America |
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Argentina · Bolivia · Brazil · Chile · Colombia · Ecuador · Guyana · Panama · Paraguay · Peru · Suriname · Trinidad and Tobago · Uruguay · Venezuela Territories |
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Australia · Norfolk Island · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands |
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East Timor · Fiji · New Caledonia · Papua New Guinea · Solomon Islands · Vanuatu |
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Guam · Kiribati · Marshall Islands · Northern Mariana Islands · Federated States of Micronesia · Nauru · Palau |
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American Samoa · Cook Islands · French Polynesia · New Zealand · Niue · Pitcairn · Samoa · Tokelau · Tonga · Tuvalu · Wallis and Futuna |
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| Art Deco | Art Nouveau | Blobitecture | Brutalism | Constructivism | Critical regionalism | De Stijl | Deconstructivism | Expressionism | Functionalism | Futurism | Googie | High-tech | International style | Jugendstil | Modernisme | New Objectivity | Organicism | Prairie School | Postmodernism | Streamline Moderne | Sustainable architecture |
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