Élmu

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Élmu sakaligus ngarupakeun prosés ngumpulkeun pangaweruh jeung wangunan pangaweruh nu kakumpulkeun ku prosés ieu. Prosés ilmiah ngarupakeun akuisisi sistematik pangaweruh anyar ngeunaan hiji sistem. Akuisisi sistematik ieu sacara umum mah métode ilmiah, sedengkeun sistemna umumna alam. Élmu ogé ngarupakeun pangaweruh ilmiah nu sacara sistematik kaala ku prosés ilmiah ieu.

Sabaraha papanggihan élmu bisa counter-intuitive pisan. Téori atom, misalna, nunjukkeun yén guruntulan granit nu katémbong beurat, teuas, padet, abu-abu, jsb. sabenerna ngarupakeun campuran partikel subatomik nu saeutik gé teu mibanda sipat-sipat éta, nu gerak cepet pisan dina hiji rohangan nu lolobana kosong.

[édit] Modél, téori, jeung hukum ilmiah

Artikel utama: métode ilmiah

Istilah "hipotésis", "modél", "téori", jeung "hukum" dina élmu mibanda larapan nu béda jeung istilah umum. Élmuwan migunakeun istilah modél nujul ka dadaran hiji hal, hususna nu ditujukeun pikeun nyieun pangira nu bisa diuji ku dicoba atawa panenget/observasi. Hipotésis nyaéta a contention that has not (yet) been well supported nor ruled out by experiment. Hukum fisika atawa hukum alam nyaéta a scientific generalization based on empirical observations.

Most non-scientists are unaware that what scientists call "theories" are what most people call "facts". The general public uses the word theory to refer to ideas that have no firm proof or support; in contrast, scientists usually use this word to refer only to ideas that have repeatedly withstood test. Thus, when scientists refer to the theories of biological evolution, electromagnetism, and relativity, they are referring to ideas that have survived considerable experimental testing. But there are exceptions, such as string theory, which seems to be a promising model but as yet has no empirical evidence to give it precedence over competing models.

Especially fruitful theories that have withstood the test of time are considered to be "proven" in the scientific sense-- that it is true and factual but of course can still be falsified. This includes many theories, such as universally accepted ones such as heliocentric theory and controversial ones such as evolution, which are backed by many observations and experimental data. Theories are always open to revision if new evidence is provided or directly contradicts predictions or other evidence. As scientists do not claim absolute knowledge, even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be incorrect if new data and observations contradict older ones.

Newton's law of gravitation is a famous example of a law falsified by experiments regarding motions at high speeds and in close proximity to strong gravitational fields. Outside of those conditions, Newton's Laws remain excellent accounts of motion and gravity. Because general relativity accounts for all of the phenomena that Newton's Laws do, and more, general relativity is currently regarded as our best account of gravitation.

[édit] Matematika jeung métode ilmiah

Matematik esensial pikeun élmu, mangpaat pangpentingna nyaéta dina éksprési/ngawujudkeun modél ilmiah. Nengetan tur ngumpulkeun ukuran-ukuran, ogé nyieun hipotésis jeung pangduga, biasana merlukeun modél matematis sarta maké matematik kalawan éksténsif. Cabang matematik nu pangmindengna dipaké dina élmu di antarana kalkulus jeung statistik, najan sabenerna sakabéh cabang matematik boga larapanana, kaasup wewengkon "murni" saperti téori wilangan jeung topologi.

Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. In either case, the fact that mathematics is such a useful tool in describing the universe is a central issue in the philosophy of mathematics.

Tempo: Eugene Wigner The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics.

R.P. Feynman nyarita "Matematik mah teu nyata, tapi asa nyata. Di mana nya perenahna?".

[édit] Tujuan élmu

Despite popular impressions of science, it is not the goal of science to answer all questions, only those that pertain to physical reality (measurable empirical experience). Also, science cannot possibly address all possible questions, so the choice of which questions to answer becomes important. Science does not and can not produce absolute and unquestionable truth. Rather, science consistently tests the currently best hypothesis about some aspect of the physical world, and when necessary revises or replaces it in light of new observations or data.

Science does not make any statements about how nature actually "is"; science can only make conclusions about our observations of nature. The developments of quantum mechanics in the early 20th century showed that observations are not independent of interactions, and the implications of wave-particle duality have challenged the traditional notion of "objectivity" in science.

Science is not a source of subjective value judgements, though it can certainly speak to matters of ethics and public policy by pointing to the likely consequences of actions. However, science can't tell us which of those consequences to desire or which is 'best'. What one projects from the currently most reasonable scientific hypothesis onto other realms of interest is not a scientific issue, and the scientific method offers no assistance for those who wish to do so. Scientific justification (or refutation) for many things is, nevertheless, often claimed.

[édit] Perenahna élmu

Élmu dipraktékkeun di universitas jeung lembaga ilmiah séjénna; najan ngarupakeun cocooan para akademia, ogé dipraktékkeun ku amatir, hususna dina observational part of science.

Some workers in corporate research laboratories also practice the methods of science and eventually become renowned enough in their fields to also work in academia. Conversely, some academics become well-known enough to consult to industry by applying their findings in some technology.

[édit] Widang élmu

[édit] Élmu fisik jeung hirup

Arkéologi
Biologi
- Élmu tatanén
- Anatomi
- Antropologi
- Astrobiologi
- Biokimia
- Bioinformatik
- Biofisik
- Botani
- Biologi sél
- Kladistik
- Sitologi
- Developmental biology
- Ékologi
- Éntomologi
- Épidemiologi
- Évolusi (Biologi évolusioner)
- Biologi pertumbuhan évolusionér ("Evo-devo" atawa évolusi pertumbuhan)
- Biologi cai seger
- Genetik (Genetik populasi, Genomik, Protéomik)
- Élmu Kaséhatan
  - Dentistry
  - Tatamba
  - Farmakologi
  - Toksikologi
  - Tatamba ingon
- Histologi
- Imunologi
- Biologi laut
- Mikrobiologi
- Biologi Molekular
- Morfologi
- Élmu saraf
- Onkologi (ulikan ngeunaan kanker)
- Ontogeni
- Paléontologi
- Patologi
- Fikologi (Algologi)
- Filogeni
- Fisiologi
- Biologi struktural
- Taksonomi
- Toksikologi
- Virologi
- Zoologi
Élmu Bumi
- Géologi
- Météorologi
- Oséanografi
- Séismologi
Fisika
- Akustik
- Astronomi
- Astrofisik
- Fisika Atomik, Molekular, jeung Optis
- Biofisik
- Fisika komputasi
- Fisika zat padet
- Kriogenik
- Éléktronik
- Rékayasa
- Dinamika cairan
- Fisika polimér
- Optik
- Fisika bahan
- Fisika matematis
- Fisika inti
- Fisika plasma
- Fisika partikel (atawa Fisika énergi luhur)
- Dinamika kendaraan
Kimia
- Kimia analitik
- Biokimia
- Kimia komputasi
- Éléktrokimia
- Kimia anorganik
- Élmu bahan
- Kimia organik
- Kimia fisik
- Kimia kuantum
- Spéktroskopi
- Stéréokimia
- Térmokimia

[édit] Komputer jeung élmu informasi

Élmu komputer
Élmu kognitif
Sistem kognitf
Cybernetics
Téori sistem
Téknologi Informasi

[édit] Élmu sosial

Ékonomi
Linguistik
Étimologi
Psikologi
Psikopatologi
Sosiologi
Atikan
Gawé Sosial

[édit] Filosofi

Science’s effectiveness has made it a subject of much philosophical speculation. The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge, and its ethical implications. It has proved remarkably difficult to provide an account of the scientific method that can serve to distinguish science from non-science.

[édit] Jejer nu patali

Organisasi jeung prakték élmu: International Council of Science (ICSU)
Pikeun dadaran kumaha tumuwuhna ieu widang, tempo Sajarah Élmu jeung Téhnologi.
Tempo ogé élmuwan pikeun katalog jalma-jalma nu giat dina widang-widangna.

[édit] Baca ogé

Tiori dasar élmu - Élmu runtah - Patafisik - Élmu patologis - Filosofi élmu - Protosains - Pseudosains - Atikan élmu - Scientific enterprise - Scientific misconduct - Scientific materialism - Métode ilmiah - Révolusi ilmiah - Hubungan antara agama jeung élmu - Patarosan sadidinten - Daptar publikasi ilmiah