ليبيا

From Wikipedia

This article is about the country in Africa. For the mythical character of the same name, see Libya (mythology).

الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الإشتراكية العظمى
Al-Jamāhīriyyah al-Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah aš-Šabiyyah al-Ištirākiyyah al-Uthmā

Image:Libyseal.gif بېرغ نښان
Motto: Freedom, socialism, unity
ملي ترانه: Allahu Akbar
پلازمېنه	Tripoli 32°54′ N 13°11′ E
لوی ښار	Tripoli
(رسمي ژبه/ ژبې)	Arabic
حکومت {{{د لارښود لقب}}}	People's Congress {{{د لارښود نوم}}}
{{{زمکنۍ بشپړتيا}}} {{{established_events}}}	{{{established_dates}}}
مساحت  • ټولټال    • اوبه (%)	1,759,540 km² {{{مساحتي وېش}}} 679,182 mi²  Negl.
د وګړو شمېر  • July 2005 est.  • 2004 census  • ګڼه ګونه	{{{د وګړو اټکل}}} (105th) 5,882,6672 3/km² (220th) {{{د وګړو ګڼه ګونهmi²}}}/mi²
GDP (PPP)  • ټولټال  • Per capita	2005 estimate $67.244 billion (67th) $11,630 (58th)
HDI (2003)	0.799 (58th) – medium
پېسه	{{{پېسه}}} ({{{د پېسو نښه}}})
د ساعت توپير  • Summer (DST)	{{{وخت}}} (UTC+2) not observed (UTC+2)
د انټرنېت م.م(TLD)	.ly
هېوادنی کوډ	{{{هېوادنی کوډ}}}
ټيليفوني پېل ګڼ	+{{{پېل ګڼ}}}
{{{پايڅوړ}}}

Libya (Arabic: ليبيا Lībiyā), officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الإشتراكية العظمى), is a country in Northern Africa. Bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the north, it is located between مصر to the east, سوډان to the southeast, چاډ and نايجېر to the south and الجېريا and تونېس to the west. Slightly larger than Alaska, Libya is the fourth largest nation in Africa and the 17th largest in the world.^[1] Its capital city, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of its 5.8 million people. The three traditional sections of the country are Tripolitania, the Fezzan and Cyrenaica.

The name "Libya" derives from the Egyptian term "Lebu", referring to Berber peoples living west of the Nile, and was adopted into Greek as "Libya". In ancient Greece, the term had a broader meaning, encompassing all of North Africa west of Egypt, and sometimes referring to the entire continent of Africa.

With among the largest proven oil reserves in the world,^[2] Libya has the strongest per capita economy in North Africa, as well as one of the largest per capita GDPs in Africa.^[3] With an area of 1.8 million square kilometres, 90% of which is desert, Libya is led by revolutionary Col. Muammar Qadhafi, one of the most well-known political figures of the 20th century.^[4]

[سمادول] تاريخ

Main article: History of Libya

Archaeological evidence indicates that from at least the eighth millennium BCE, Libya's coastal plain hosted a Neolithic culture skilled in the domestication of cattle and cultivation of crops.^[5] This culture flourished for thousands of years in Libya, millennia before the domination of ancient European forces, until being displaced or absorbed by the Berbers. Archaeological and linguistic evidence strongly suggests that the ancestors of the Berbers may have begun their migration from southwestern Asia into the country early in the third millennium BCE. The Berbers, however, never developed a sense of nationhood and have historically identified themselves in terms of their tribe, clan, and family.^[5]

The land now known as modern Libya was later subjected to varying degrees of unifying foreign control, with the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines ruling all or parts of Libya. Although the Greeks and Romans left ruins at Cyrene, Leptis Magna, and Sabratha, little else remains today to testify to the presence of these ancient cultures.

Ruins of a theatre in the Roman city of Sabratha.

The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya, where the merchants of Tyre (in present-day Lebanon) eventually developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes and made treaties with them to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials.^[6] By the fifth century BCE, Carthage, the greatest of the overseas Phoenician colonies, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being. Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (Tripoli), Labdah (later Leptis Magna), and Sabratha, in an area that came to be known collectively as Tripolis, or "Three Cities", from which Libya's modern capital Tripoli takes its name.

The Greeks conquered Eastern Libya, when according to tradition, emigrants from the crowded island of Thera were commanded by the oracle at Delphi to seek a new home in North Africa, where in 631 B.C. they founded the city of Cyrene.^[7] Within 200 years of Cyrene's founding, four more important Greek cities were established in the area: Barce (Al Marj); Euhesperides (later Berenice, present-day Benghazi); Teuchira (later Arsinoe, present-day Tukrah); and Apollonia (Susah), the port of Cyrene. Together with Cyrene, they were known as the Pentapolis (Five Cities).

The Romans unified both regions of Libya, and for more than 400 years, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica became prosperous Roman provinces.^[8] Roman ruins like those of Leptis Magna attest to the vitality of the region, where populous cities and even smaller towns enjoyed the amenities of urban life. Merchants and artisans from many parts of the Roman world established themselves in North Africa, but the character of the cities of Tripolitania remained decidedly Punic and, in Cyrenaica, Greek.

The Arabs conquered Libya in the seventh century CE. In the following centuries, many of the indigenous peoples adopted Islam, the Arabic language and culture. The Ottoman Turks conquered the country in the mid-16th century, Libya remaining part of their empire, although at times virtually autonomous, until Italy invaded in 1911. In the face of years of resistance, Libya was made a colony.^[9]

In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, excepting Egypt) as the official name of the colony, which consisted of the provinces of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan. King Idris I, Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two World Wars. From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.^[10]

Omar Mukhtar (1858 – 1931), leader of the Libyan uprising against Italian occupation.

On November 21 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1 1952. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. When Libya declared its independence on December 24 1951, it was the first country to achieve independence through the United Nations and one of the first European possessions in Africa to gain independence.^[11] Libya was proclaimed a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris.

The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state, as measured by per capita GDP. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and the national elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East.

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On September 1 1969, a small group of military officers led by then 28-year-old army officer Mu’ammar Abu Minyar al-Qadhafi staged a coup d’etat against King Idris. At the time, Idris was in Turkey for medical treatment. His nephew, Crown Prince Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida al-Mahdi as-Sanussi, became King. It was clear that the revolutionary officers who had announced the deposition of King Idris did not want to appease him over the instruments of state as King. The reason for this was because he complained that his power was far less than that which he had been exercising as Crown Prince on Idris's behalf. Before the end of September 1, King Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida al-Mahdi as-Sanussi had been formally deposed by the revolutionary army officers and put under house arrest. Meanwhile, revolutionary officers abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic. Qadhafi was, and is to this day, referred to as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution" in government statements and the official press.^[12]

[سمادول] سياست

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Wall carpet depicting Col. Muammar Qadhafi, in a hotel in Misratah.

There is a dual government structure in Libya. The "revolutionary sector" comprises Revolutionary Leader Qadhafi, the Revolutionary Committees and the remaining members of the twelve person Revolutionary Command Council, which was established in 1969.^[13] The historical revolutionary leadership is not elected and cannot be voted out of office, as they are in power by virtue of their involvement in the revolution. The revolutionary sector dictates the decision-making power of the second sector, the "Jamahiriya Sector". Making up the legislative branch of government, this sector comprises Local People's Congresses in each of the 1,500 urban wards, 32 Sha’biyat People’s Congresses for the regions, and the National General People's Congress. These legislative bodies are represented by corresponding executive bodies (Local People's Committees, Sha'biyat People's Committees and the National General People’s Committee/Cabinet).

Every four years the membership of the Local People's Congresses elects by acclamation both their own leadership and secretaries for the People’s Committees, sometimes after many debates and a critical vote. The leadership of the Local People’s Congress represents the local congress at the People’s Congress of the next level and has an imperative mandate. The members of the National General People's Congress elect the members of the National General People’s Committee (the Cabinet) by acclamation at their annual meeting. The most recent meeting, which took place in Sirte January 8–January 12 2005, was the 29th annual.^[14]

While there is discussion regarding who will run for executive offices, only those approved by the revolutionary leadership are actually elected. The government administration is effective as long as it operates within the directives of the revolutionary leadership. The revolutionary leadership has absolute veto power despite the constitutionally established people's democracy and alleged rule of the people. The government controls both state-run and semi-autonomous media, and any articles critical of current policies have been requested and intentionally placed by the revolutionary leadership itself, for example, as a means of initiating reforms. In cases involving a violation of "these taboos", the private press, like The Tripoli Post, has been censored.

Political parties were banned by the 1972 Prohibition of Party Politics Act Number 71.^[15] According to the Association Act of 1971, the establishment of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) is allowed. As they are required to conform to the goals of the revolution, however, the number of NGOs in Libya is small in comparison with neighboring countries. Trade unions do not exist as such,^[16] but numerous professional associations are integrated into the state structure as a third pillar, along with the People’s Congresses and Committees. These associations do not have the right to strike. Professional associations send delegates to the General People's Congress, where they have a representative mandate.

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[سمادول] Municipalities

Main article: Municipalities of Libya

Libya was initially organized into two to four provinces, then into several governorates (muhafazat) and more recently into municipalities (baladiyat). The country's 25 baladiyah have recently been re-divided into 32 shabiyah.

[سمادول] باندنۍ اړيکې

Main article: Foreign relations of Libya

Libya's foreign policies have undergone much fluctuation and change since the state came into being on Christmas Eve, 1951. As the Kingdom of Libya, the country maintained a definitively pro-Western stance yet at the same time was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (Arab League), of which it became a member in 1953. The Kingdom was in close alliance with Britain as well as with the United States both of which maintained military base rights in Libya. Libya also forged close ties with France, Italy, Greece, and Turkey, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955.

Although the nation supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, Libya took little active part in the Arab-Israeli dispute or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and the early 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while King Idris' government steered an essentially conservative course at home.

After the 1969 coup, Qadhafi closed American and British bases on Libyan territory and partially nationalized foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. He also played a key role in promoting oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West, especially the United States, to end support for Israel. Qadhafi rejected both Soviet communism and Western capitalism and claimed he was charting a middle course for his government. In October 1978, Gadaffi was severely criticised for his support of Idi Amin in the Uganda-Tanzania War. Libyan troops sent by Gadaffi aided Idi Amin in trying to annex the northern Tanzanian province of Kagera. Amin, having lost the battle, fled to exile in Libya where he remained for almost a year.

The 1980s was a decade in which Libya increasingly distanced itself from the West and was accused of committing mass acts of state sponsored terrorism. When evidence of Libyan complicity was discovered in the Berlin discotheque terrorist bombing that killed two American servicemen, the United States responded by launching an aerial bombing attack against targets near Tripoli and Benghazi in April 1986.

In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by federal prosecutors in the U.S. and Scotland for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103. The UN Security Council demanded that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of UNSC Resolution 748 on March 31, 1992, imposing sanctions on the state designed to bring about Libyan compliance. Continued Libyan defiance led to further sanctions by the UN against Libya in November 1993.

In 2003, more than a decade after the sanctions were put in place, Libya began to make dramatic policy changes vis-à-vis the Western world with the open intention of pursuing a Western-Libyan détente. The Libyan government announced its decision to abandon its weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost 3 billion US dollars in compensation to the families of Pan Am flight 103 as well as UTA Flight 772.^[17] The decision was welcomed by many western nations and was seen as an important step for Libya toward rejoining the international community.^[18] Since 2003 the country has normalised its ties with the European Union and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, 'The Libya Model', an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation rather than force when there is goodwill on both sides.^[19]

[سمادول] جغرافيه

Main article: Geography of Libya

Map of Libya

Libya extends over 1,759,540 square kilometres (679,182 sq. mi), making it the 17th largest nation in the world. It is bound to the west by Tunisia and Algeria, the southwest by Niger, the south by Chad and Sudan and to the east by Egypt. Also, the country is bound to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. At 1770 kilometres (1100 mi), Libya has the longest coastline of any country bordering the Mediterranean.^[20] The climate is mostly dry and desert-like in nature. However, the northern regions enjoy a milder Mediterranean climate.

The traditional geographic regions are Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan. The chief cities are the capital Tripoli in northwest Libya and Benghazi, located in the east. Other significant cities include Misratah, Sirte and Sabha.^[21]

Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden sirocco (known in Libya as the gibli). This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn. There are also dust storms and sandstorms. Oases can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are Ghadames and Kufra as well as others.

[سمادول] بېديا

The Libyan Desert, which covers much of eastern Libya, is one of the most arid places on earth. In places, decades may pass without rain, and even in the highlands rainfall happens erratically, once every 5-10 years. At Uweinat, the last recorded rainfall was in September 1998.^[22] There is a large depression, the Qattara Depression, just to the south of the northernmost scarp, with Siwa oasis at its western extremity. The depression continues in a shallower form west, to the oases of Jaghbub and Jalo.

The Jabal Al Akdhar near Benghazi is Libya's wettest region. Annual rainfall averages at between 400 and 600 millimeters.^[23]

Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan desert can be extreme; in 1922, the town of Al 'Aziziyah, which is located west of Tripoli, recorded an air temperature of 57.8°C (136.0°F), generally accepted as the highest recorded naturally occurring air temperature reached on Earth.^[24]

Dramatic eroded mountains in the south of the country.

There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebiana and Kufra. Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of plateaus and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan Borders.

The Gilf Kebir plateau rises about 300 metres (1,000 ft) above the general plain, and lies entirely in Egypt. It roughly equals Switzerland in size, and is similar in structure to the other sandstone plateaus of the central Sahara.

Desert landscape in Southern Libya.

Its south-eastern part is well defined on all sides, with sheer cliffs and deep, narrows wadis. The northeast part, separated from the other half by a broad valley called the "Gap" is more broken, and supports three large wadis with vegetation.^[25]

Slightly further to the south are the massifs of Arkenu, Uweinat and Kissu. These granite mountains are very ancient, having formed much before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the Air Mountains. Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west. The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features.

In 1996 the movie "The English Patient" raised public interest in the Libyan desert.

[سمادول] اقتصاد

Main article: Economy of Libya

The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which contribute practically all export earnings and about one-quarter of GDP. These oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa and have allowed the Libyan state to provide an extensive and impressive level of social security, particularly in the fields of housing and education.^[26] Compared to its market-orientated neighbours, Libya enjoys an extremely low level of both absolute and relative poverty. Libyan officials in the past three years have made progress on economic reforms as part of a broader campaign to reintegrate the country into the international fold.^[27] This effort picked up steam after UN sanctions were lifted in September 2003 and as Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction.^[28]

Tripoli's Old City - (El-Madina El-Kadima) - situated in the city centre is one of the classical sites of the Mediterranean.

Libya has started to respond to international, political and economic pressure to adopt market orientated reforms and has begun liberalizing the highly effective socialist-oriented economy. Initial steps — including applying for WTO membership, reducing some subsidies, and announcing plans for privatization — are laying the groundwork for a transition to a more market-based economy.^[29] The non-oil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for about 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include the production of petrochemicals, iron, steel, and aluminum. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit agricultural output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food.^[30]

The Libyan economy is also viewed as ripe for modernisation and foreign investment.^[31] Under the previous Prime Minister, Shukri Ghanem and current prime minister Baghdadi Mahmudi, it is undergoing a business boom. Many socialist-era government-run industries are being privatized. UN sanctions were ended in 2003, and most US sanctions have also been lifted; as of May 2006, the remaining vestiges are scheduled for removal pending US Congressional approval. Continental Airlines currently offers code-share travel to Libya. Many international oil companies have returned to the country, including the recent return of controversial oil giants Shell and ExxonMobil.^[32] Tourism is also on the rise which has brought demand for the building of more hotels and increasing capacity in airports such as Tripoli International.^[33]

[سمادول] Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Libya

Libyan Arab children.

Libya has a small population within its large territory, with a population density of about 3 persons per square kilometre (8.5/mi²) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, and less than one person per square kilometre (1.6/mi²) elsewhere. This makes Libya one of the least populous nations by area in the world.^[34] 90% of the people live in less than 10% of the area, mostly along the coast. More than half the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi.^[35] Native Libyans are primarily a mixture of Arabs and Berbers.

Within Libya, there are also small Tuareg and Tebu tribal groups concentrated in the south, living nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyles. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians and Tunisians), West Africans and Sub-Saharan Africans.^[36] Libyan Berbers and Arabs constitute 97% of the population, the other 3% are Black Africans, Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians and Tunisians.

The main language spoken in Libya is Arabic, which is also the official language. Tamazight (Berber languages), which do not have official status, are spoken by Libyan Berbers.^[37] Italian and English are sometimes spoken in the big cities, although Italian speakers are mainly among the older generation. In addition, Tuaregs have their own language which belongs to the Berber languages group.

[سمادول] فرهڼ

Main article: Culture of Libya

Coastline of Benghazi, Libya's second largest city. With the longest coastline of any Mediterranean nation, Libya's mostly unspoilt beaches are a common place for socialising for many Libyans.

Libyan culture is, to a certain extent, similar to that of its other neighbouring Arab states. The Libyan people very much consider themselves as part of a wider Arab community. The primary language is a colloquial form of Arabic that is unique to the area around Libya.^[38] There seem to be two distinct dialects and a couple of village and tribal dialects. Libyan Arabs have a heritage in the traditions of the nomadic Bedouin and associate themselves with a particular Bedouin tribe.

Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of whom live in apartment blocks and various kinds of independent housing units depending on their income status. Most of the Arabs, who have lived nomadic lifestyles, traditionally in tents, have been settled in various towns and cities in Libya. Because of this, their old ways of life are fading out. It is believed that there are still some who do live as they have for centuries in the desert, though no one knows the exact numbers. Most of the population are engaged in occupations in industry and services, and a small percentage is in agriculture.

Similar to some other countries in the Arab world, Libya boasts few theatres or art galleries. Public entertainment is almost non-existent, even in the big cities. Instead, most Libyans enjoy regular trips to the many beaches of the country. They also visit Libya's many beautifully preserved archaeological sites, especially Leptis Magna, which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world.

The nation's capital Tripoli boasts many good museums and archives including the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The Jamahirirya Museum, built in consultation with UNESCO, is possibly the country's most famous and houses one of the finest collections of classical art in the Mediterranean.

There has recently been something of a revival of the arts in Libya, especially in the field of painting and private galleries are springing up to provide a showcase for new talent.^[39] Conversely, for many years there have been no public theatres and only a few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of folk culture is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad. The main output of Libyan television is devoted to showing various styles of traditional Libyan music. Traditional Tuareg music and dance are popular in Ghadames and the south.

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[سمادول] مذهب

Main article: Islam in Libya

Mosque in Ghadames, close to the Tunisian and Algerian border. 97% of Libyans are followers of Islam.

By far the predominant religion in Libya is Islam with 97% of the population associating with the Muslim faith.^[40] Nearly all Libyan Muslims adhere to the Sunni sect of Islam, which provides both a spiritual guide for individuals and a keystone for government policy.

Before the 1930s, the Sanusi Movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its zawaayaa (lodges) were found in Tripolitania and Fezzan, but Sanusi influence was strongest in Cyrenaica. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Sanusi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose. This Islamic movement, which was later destroyed by both Italian invasion and later the Qadhafi government, was very conservative and somewhat different to the Islam that exists in Libya today. Qadhafi himself is a devout Muslim, and his government is taking somewhat of a leading role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytizing on behalf of Islam. Libyan Islam, however, has always been considered as traditional but in no way harsh. A Libyan form of Sufism is also somewhat common in parts of the country.

Although Libyans are overwhelmingly Sunni Muslims, there are also very small Christian communities, composed exclusively of foreigners. There is a small Anglican community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli, which is part of the Egyptian Diocese. There are also an estimated 40,000 Roman Catholics in Libya who are served by two Bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the Italian community) and one in Benghazi (serving the Maltese community).

Libya was once the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC.^[41] A series of pogroms started in November of 1945 lasting for almost three years, drastically reducing Libya's Jewish population.^[42] In 1948, about 38,000 Jews lived in the country.

Upon Libya's independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated from Libya. Another series of pogroms began after the Suez Crisis in 1956, forcing all but about 100 Jews to flee. When Muammar al-Qaddafi came to power, all remaining Jewish property was confiscated and all debts to Jews were cancelled. Although the main synagogue in Tripoli was renovated in 1999, it has yet to re-open for services.

[سمادول] دا هم وګورۍ

[سمادول] International Rankings

[سمادول] References

• Libya, Anthony Ham, Lonely Planet Publications, 2002, ISBN 0864426992
• Libya Handbook, Jamez Azema, Footprint Handbooks, 2001, ISBN 1900949776
• Nations of the Modern World: Libya, John Wright, Ernest Benn Ltd, 1969
• Harris, David A. (2001). In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist, 1979-1999. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. ISBN 0881256935
• Template:CIAfbTemplate:Clr
• Template:StateDept

[سمادول] باندنۍ تړنې

ليبيا ورټک

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[سمادول] Government

• General People's Committee (The Cabinet)
• The People's Committee of Foreign Affairs
• Libyan Liaison Office, Washington D.C.
• Libyan People's Bureau (Libyan Embassy), Ottawa
• Libyan Cultural Affairs, London.

[سمادول] Overviews

• BBC News Country Profile — Libya
• CIA World Factbook — Libya
• Encyclopaedia Britannica, Libya - Country Page
• Open Directory Project - Libya directory category
• US Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports - Libya
• US State Department — Libya includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

[سمادول] Tourism

• Template:Wikitravel
• Libyan Arab Airlines
• Libya Connected
• Libya Tourism Forums
• see TOUR LIBYA

Vikipedi, özgür ansiklopedi Git ve: kullan, ara

Afrika Uluslar Kupası CAF ülkeleri için temel uluslararası futbol turnuvasıdır.İlk kez 1957 yılında düzenlenen turnuva, 1968'den beri her iki Template:Africa Template:Mediterranean