Hypnosis

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Professor Charcot was well-known for showing, during his lessons at the Salpêtrière hospital, "hysterical" woman patients – here, his favorite patient, "Blanche" (Marie) Wittman, supported by Joseph Babiński. The neurologist endorsed hypnotism for the treatment of hysteria.

Hypnosis is a process in which critical thinking faculties of the mind are bypassed and a type of selective thinking and perception is established. Although some individuals experience an increase in suggestibility and subjective feelings of an altered state of consciousness, this is not true for everyone. In fact, some supposed hypnotic indicators and subjective changes can be achieved without relaxation or a lengthy induction by means of simple suggestion or waking hypnosis, a fact that increases the controversy and misunderstandings around hypnosis and the hypnotic state.

[edit] History

Main article: History of hypnosis

Many names dot the landscape of hypnosis' history from Franz Anton Mesmer to Milton Erickson. For a more complete history see the reference section below.

[edit] Theories of Hypnosis

Some theories of hypnosis attempt to describe hypnotic phenomena in terms of brain activity while others concentrate more on the phenomenological experience. In either case, a fundamental distinction is between "state" and "non-state" theories of hypnosis. State theorists believe that an altered state of consciousness is a core part of hypnosis, whereas non-state theorists believe that more mundane psychological processes such as focused attention and expectation are sufficient to explain hypnotic phenomena. The precise definition of what constitutes an altered state of consciousness is a matter of some debate. Although many people who are hypnotized describe their experience as "altered" it is difficult to use these terms in the absence of a prior definition.

The American Psychological Association remains neutral in the argument between 'state' and 'non-state' theorists. However, this controversy may be decreasing as modern brain-imaging techniques offer hope for an increased understanding of the nature of hypnosis, and as the value of both perspectives is increasingly recognized.

The following theories have been presented from highly regarded individuals/groups:

[edit] Alpha- and Theta-state theories

Through data collected by Electroencephalography (EEGs), four major brain-wave patterns—frequency of electrical impulses firing from the brain—have been identified. The Beta state (alert/working) is defined as 14–32 cycles per second (CPS), the Alpha state (relaxed/reflecting) as the 7–14 CPS, the Theta state (drowsy) as 4–7 CPS, and the Delta state (sleeping/dreaming/deep sleep) as approximately 3–5 CPS.^[1]

One physiological definition of hypnosis states that the brainwave level necessary to work on issues such as stopping smoking, managing weight, reducing phobias, improving athletic performance, etc., is the alpha state. The alpha state is commonly associated with closing one's eyes, relaxation, and daydreaming.^[1]

Another physiological definition states that the theta state is required for therapeutic change. The theta state is associated with hypnosis for surgery, hypnoanesthesia (the use of hypnosis to numb sensation of pain), and hypnoanalgesia (the use of hypnosis to decrease sensitivity to pain), which occur more readily in the theta and delta states. Anesthetics, sedatives and hypnotics disrupt neuronal synchrony, thought to underlie theta waves, in both humans and animals, as well as in simple neuronal circuits (see: http://www.stanford.edu/group/maciverlab/Theta.html). It should be noted that hypnoanalgesia of the skin is a common test for somnambulism. Arm and body catalepsy are one of a few tests done to determine readiness for these surgical applications.^{[citation needed]}

However, it is important to reflect upon the fact that both arm and body catalepsy can be induced in normal non-hypnotized subjects. Indeed, arm catalepsy is a standard stage-hypnotist's test of susceptibility. Moreover, normal, non-hypnotized subjects can be found in any of these states of cortical arousal without also displaying any of the behavior, traits or the enhanced suggestibility associated with being hypnotized. Reading, watching movies, and meditating may be also forms of hypnosis.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Social constructionism / Role-playing theory

This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and that really there is no such thing as hypnosis. A relationship is built depending on how much rapport has been established between the 'hypnotist' and the subject (see Hawthorne effect, Pygmalion effect, and the Placebo effect).^[2]

Generally, during the communication process people can become more receptive to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave. Some psychologists such as Robert Baker claim that what we call hypnosis is actually a form of learned social behavior, a complex hybrid of social compliance, relaxation, and suggestibility that can account for many esoteric behavioral manifestations.^[3] Psychologists, such as Sarbin and Spanos, have suggested that strong social expectations are played out by subjects, who believe they are in a state of 'hypnosis', behaving in a way that they imagine a 'hypnotized' person would behave.

Nicholas Spanos states “hypnotic procedures influence behavior indirectly by altering subjects’ motivations, expectations and interpretations”^[4] and hypothesized that the behaviors associated with hypnosis are acted out knowingly by the person. He alleged that there are two reasons that cause people to misconstrue their state of consciousness as hypnosis. One of the reasons being that people believe that their behavior is caused by an external source instead of the self. The second is related to the way hypnotic rituals are performed. The hypnotist says certain things which are first interpreted as voluntary and then later on in the procedure as involuntary. An example being “relax the muscles in your legs” and then later “your legs feel limp and heavy”.

Much experimental work has demonstrated that the experiences of supposedly hypnotized subjects can be dramatically shaped by expectations and social nuances. In short individuals are choosing to act out a role and experiencing effects based on their expectations and subtle methods of communication, the mechanism by which these take place have in part been socially constructed and are not based on the idea of an altered state of consciousness.

[edit] Dissociation and neodissociation theories

Pierre Janet originally developed the idea of dissociation of consciousness, as a result of his work with hysterical patients. He believed that hypnosis was an example of dissociation: areas of an individual's behavioral control are split off from ordinary awareness. In this case, hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind and the individual will respond with autonomic, reflexive behavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as "dissociation of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place."^[5]

[edit] Neuropsychological theory of hypnosis

Neuropsychological theories of hypnosis attempt to explain hypnotic phenomenon in terms of alterations in brain activity. Gruzelier, based on large amounts of EEG research, proposed that hypnosis is characterized by a shift in brain activity from anterior (front) to posterior (back).

[edit] Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep

Ivan Pavlov believed that hypnosis was a "partial sleep". He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis did not significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower brain stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.^[6]

Some modern well-known hypnotherapists subscribe to this theory, since in hypnosis, the subject typically appears to be asleep because of eye closure that is typically part of the induction procedure. However, there is quite a bit of literature on blood pressure, reflexes, physiochemical and EEG studies which indicates that hypnosis more closely resembles complete wakefulness.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Hyper–suggestibility theory

Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject focuses attention by responding to the suggestion of the hypnotist. As attention is focused and magnified, the hypnotist's words are gradually accepted without the subject carrying any conscious censorship of what is being said. This is not unlike the athlete listening to the last pieces of advice from a coach minutes before an important sport event: Concentration filters out anything that is unimportant and magnifies what is said about what really matters for the subject.^[2]

[edit] Informational theory

This theory applies the concept of the brain-as-computer model. In electronic systems, a system adjusts its feedback networks to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for optimum functioning, called a "steady state". Increasing the receptability of a receptor enables messages to be more clearly received from a transmitter primarily by trying to reduce the interference (noise) as much as possible. Thus, the object of the hypnotist is to use techniques to reduce the interference and increase the receptability of specific messages (suggestions).^[2]

[edit] Systems theory

This theory may be regarded as an extension of James Braid's original conceptualization of hypnosis^[7] as involving a process of greatly enhancing or depressing the activity of the nervous system. It takes and establishes the necessary organization of the nervous system into interacting subsystems. On that basis it develops a picture of hypnotic phenomena as involving not only increasing or decreasing of the activity of particular subsystems, but on their interaction. As a result it brings into centre stage the phenomenon of feed-back loops, familiar in systems theory, and thereby throws light on a mechanism for creating the more extreme of hypnotic phenomena.^[8][9]

[edit] Research on hypnosis

While one of first scientifically controlled studies, as opposed to clinical studies was done by Dr.Robert W. Habbick of Syracuse University as recently as 1968,there is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis clinical research which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate. Much clinical research has been conducted into the nature and effects of hypnosis and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (if somewhat peripheral) tool in contemporary psychological research. A number of different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: that which examines the state of hypnosis itself, that which examines the effects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and that which uses hypnotic suggestion as a tool to research other areas of psychological functioning.

Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective tool for pain relief, and when combined adjunctively with other therapeutic techniques it has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it is effective for weight loss, IBS, anxiety conditions and many more).^{[citation needed]}

Recently, there are reports that efforts to reduce obesity with hypnosis (when used in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy, exercise, and a low-fat diet) may be effective.^[10]

[edit] Clinical Studies

In 1996 The National Institutes of Health technology assessment panel judged hypnosis to be an effective intervention for alleviating pain from cancer and other chronic conditions. A large number of clinical studies also indicate that hypnosis can reduce the acute pain experienced by patients undergoing burn-wound debridement, enduring bone marrow aspirations and childbirth. An analysis published in a recent issue of the International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, for example, found that hypnotic suggestions relieved the pain of 75% of 933 subjects participating in 27 different experiments.^[11]

[edit] Brain Imaging

With the recent advent of new brain imaging techniques (chiefly MRI scans, with EEG and PET contributing to a lesser extent) there has been a resurgence of interest in the relationship between hypnosis and brain function. Any human experience is reflected in some way in the brain – seeing colors or motion is underscored by activity in the visual cortex, feeling fear is mediated by activity in the amygdala – and so hypnosis and suggestion are expected to have observable effects upon brain function. An important issue for researchers conducting brain imaging is to separate the effects of hypnosis and suggestion — knowing that a suggestion given during hypnosis affects brain area X does not just tell us about hypnosis, it tells us about the effects of the suggestion too. To account for this, experiments need to include a non-hypnotic-response-to-suggestion condition —only this way can the specific effects of hypnosis be examined.

A number of brain-imaging studies have been conducted on hypnotized subjects. A selection of these studies are explained and summarized below:

One controlled scientific experiment postulates that hypnosis may alter our perception of conscious experience in a way not possible when people are not "hypnotized", at least in "highly hypnotizable" people. In this experiment, color perception was changed by hypnosis in "highly hypnotizable" people as determined by positron emission tomography (PET) scans (Kosslyn et al., 2000). (This research does not compare the effects of hypnosis on less hypnotizable people and could therefore show little causal effect due to the lack of a control group.)

Another research example, employing event-related fMRI and EEG coherence measures, compared certain specific neural activity "...during Stroop task performance between participants of low and high hypnotic susceptibility, at baseline and after hypnotic induction". According to its authors, "the fMRI data revealed that conflict-related ACC activity interacted with hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility, in that highly susceptible participants displayed increased conflict-related neural activity in the hypnosis condition compared to baseline, as well as with respect to subjects with low susceptibility." (Egner et al., 2005).

Skeptics dispute the significance of such findings, claiming that such changes cannot be shown to be particular to the hypnotized state, and that any other action such as daydreaming is also likely to alter brain activity in some manner. However, recent studies have shown that hypnotized subjects suggested to experience auditory hallucinations demonstrated via PET scans, regional blood flow in the same areas of the brain as real hearing, whereas in subjects merely engaged in vividly imagining hearing noises, this did not occur.^[11] The subject is still a matter of current research and scientific debate.

[edit] Hypnosis methodologies and effects

[edit] General methods

The act of inducing a hypnotic state is referred to as an induction procedure. Currently, there is not a consensus for which method is the most effective induction procedure. Some practitioners use simple calming techniques, while others use complex triggers (for example mechanical devices).^[12]

Many experienced hypnotists claim that they can hypnotize almost anyone. They also claim it is a myth that people with strong will power cannot be hypnotized, as they claim these generally make the best participants. This is based on the idea that those who are most intelligent are also the most creative and as such they will make strong associations with the structure of language used by the hypnotist and by the visual or auditory representations inside of their mind. On the other hand, there is a common claim that no one can really be hypnotized against his or her will.^[13] The counter-claim given by many hypnotists is that while you cannot make someone do anything against their will, you can change what it is that they wish to do.

This might be the result of a kind of misunderstanding between the two factions: One should separate that what people "wish to do" from the additional part of the consciousness that watches the changes in wishing. There is not one "will" that can be changed, it is a dual phenomenon: The will of the person in general and the "will" or activity of the part of the consciousness that watches over the will's changes. The common claim that it is not possible to be hypnotized "against one's will" states, when expressed within the above structure, that a person clearly aware of changes in consciousness and will (a person with a conscious and deliberate activity in the watching part) will not allow any changes made to the will itself, as suggestive as they might be. It states that the transition can always be recognized and prevented by the part watching over the will. The claim of hypnotists that they can alter a person's will by suggestions neglects the fact that those suggestions will not come through when the person has a firm control and awareness of the uttered suggestions and attempted changes. For a hypnosis induction to be successful it is therefore surely necessary for the participant to "open up", in the described model this would mean to shut down the part that watches over changes of will and consciousness, and to allow the suggestions and changes to be made. The claim made above, with the clearer formulation developed here, will probably not be disputed by any serious hypnotist.

Many religious and cultural rituals contain many similarities with techniques used for hypnotic induction and induce similar states in their participants.^[14]

[edit] General effects

[edit] Focused attention

This school of thought holds that hypnosis as a state is very similar to other states of extreme concentration, where a person becomes oblivious to his or her surroundings while lost in thought. Often suggested as an example is when a driver suddenly finds his or her self much further down the road without any memory of driving the intervening distance (see highway hypnosis), when a person is watching television and focuses so intently on the program that he or she ceases to be aware of the sides of the screen, or when a person is thinking about another subject while reading, then realizes that he or she has read several pages without consciously doing so, or taking in any of the content.

The act of hypnotizing, is, in effect, the act of deliberately and mechanically inducing a similar state.^[15]

[edit] Suggestibility

Some psychologists have developed studies that show a correlation between the effects people display when acting as 'hypnotized' and their level of suggestibility. Some of these studies involve the Harvard scale, and Stanford scale.

Hypnosis has been described as "The suspension of the critical factor" which expands on the idea of "increased suggestibility". A person who claims to be hypnotized may accept statements as true that he or she would normally reject. However, this still does not show the validity of hypnosis as a real state, as subjects carrying out role playing would likewise answer seemingly illogically if convinced that was the paradigm.

It often appears as if the 'hypnotized' participant accepts the authority of the 'hypnotist' over his or her own experience. When asked after the conclusion of such a session, some participants claim to be genuinely unable to recall the incident, while others say that they had known the hypnotist was wrong but at the time it had seemed easier just to go along with his instructions. (Richard Feynman describes this in his memoir Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! as his own hypnotic experience.) The mechanism of this effect is however disputed: Some hypnotists would claim that this showed the difference between a deep and a shallow hypnotic trance, while skeptics would cite that such effects can be duplicated in other circumstances where an agent holds authority, such as the Milgram experiment. Because of the ability to achieve these effects through normal varieties of communication and circumstance, there is no scientific theory that supports the existance of hypnosis.

[edit] Clinical observations of various depths of hypnosis

[edit] Breuer's absent pupillary reflex sign

An objective sign of hypnosis can be observed by a pupillary reflex test, which demonstrates a response that is opposed to the normal physiological response. When subjects are in a profound hypnotic state, they are asked to remain in hypnosis and open their eyes. The subjects' pupils are usually dilated and remain dilated or react poorly when a penlight is shone into them—the normal non-hypnotic response is a contraction of the pupil.

The esoteric publication Hypnotism, by Danish hypnotist Carl Septus, is an early reference work that notes the absent pupillary reflex sign. More specifically, it states that after subjects have been asked to open their eyes during a deep trance, light shone into the eyes does not cause pupil contraction. The hypnotist may use suggestion to keep the subject in hypnosis, but the hypnotist must avoid suggestions relating to eyes, visual focus, light, and the pupils' dilation or contraction.^[16]

[edit] Hypnosis applications

[edit] Hypnotherapy

Main article: Hypnotherapy

Hypnotherapy is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as "clinical work". Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his or her own business. The majority of certified hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the US, Diploma. Hyp in the UK) today earn a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting). There is no evidence that 'incurable' diseases are curable with hypnosis (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis), but pain and other body functions related to the diseases are controllable.^{[17][18][19][20]} Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-called regression, have been viewed with skepticism.^[21]

The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one",^[22] and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication".^[23] (See also false memory). This is why forensic hypnosis is not widely used in many countries' legal systems. Hypnosis is used a lot in modern life and is very helpful to some people.

[edit] Clinical hypnosis

The American Society of Clinical Hypnosis is an organization that "promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications". Hypnosis is applied to a great range of both physical and psychological ailments, rather than being restricted to purely psychological phenomena. The society was founded by Milton Erickson, a physician who succeeded in helping to put hypnosis on a firm footing. Milton H. Erickson was opposed to non-board-licensed health care professionals performing therapeutic hypnotism, to protect the public from so called "certified laymen" eager to practice. To get around this in the United States, "certified" lay hypnotists now claim to perform "non-therapeutic issue-resolution hypnotism," rather than "hypnotherapy."

[edit] Medical and Dental application

One of the major initial applications of hypnotism was the suppression of pain during medical procedures; this was supplanted (in the late 19th century) by the development of more reliable chemical anesthetics.

The use of hypnosis in dentistry has a long history. Dealing with hypnodontia – the use of hypnosis in dentistry – has attested to the increasing sophistication of hypnotic procedures to deal with the special problems of the dental patient. Besides smoothing out dental procedures by way of its generalized anti-anxiety effects, it can increase overall patient comfort, make the dental experience acceptable and bearable, decrease resistance to future intervention, and through posthypnotic suggestions, encourage more rapid recovery.

[edit] Educational Applications

In a lecture to the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis (ASCH) during their annual conference at the State University Of New York, Dr. Milton Erickson taught the process of indirect hypnosis while Dr. Robert W. Habbick spoke of his research on the use of hypnosis in enhancing learning and reducing anxiety. Dr. Habbick explained the use of a triad of suggestions "(a)enhancing confidence, while (b)strengthening focused interest in the work and (c)improving energy to do the studying necessary." The results of his controlled research pointed the way toward the need to apply hypnosis especially with students having trouble studying. In a more recent lecture, Dr. Habbick spoke in Boston to ASCH of the positive effects of using his suggested hypnosis triad with students at the Bureau of Study Council at Harvard University.

[edit] Hypnodermatology

Main article: Hypnodermatology

Hypnodermatology is the practice of treating skin diseases with hypnosis.

[edit] Entertainment/Stage application

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Professor G.F. Wagstaff, of the University of Liverpool, carried out research around the phenomenon of stage hypnotism or hypnotism for entertainment. He surmised that rather than the subject being in an 'altered state' rather they were affected significantly more by social factors and expectations.^[24]

Wagstaff's work explores how a hypnotist will carefully choose volunteers from the audience, put them into a trance using hypnosis, and then plant suggestions for them to perform. The critical factor in any stage hypnosis show is the choice of enthusiastic and credulous individuals. Various techniques exist for discerning whether an individual is a likely candidate for a hypnosis stage act, showing a higher than normal susceptibility. Often, the sheer willingness of audience members to volunteer is a sign that they will cooperate with the hypnotist's suggestions during the show whether or not they actually become hypnotized in the first place.^[24]

The process used to ensure participants presenting themselves as adequate for the stage starts with the initial call for volunteers from the audience. The hypnotist will use carefully selected terms in the initial call for volunteers. There will be a certain number of chairs, or spots on the stage which will usually be less than the number of initial volunteers. This will set up an unconscious sense of competition among those volunteers who *really do* want to participate.

For example, the volunteers may be made to believe they are drunk, aliens speaking a strange alien language, naked or seeing others naked, six year-old children, ballet dancers etc. Such suggestions are designed to be temporary, lasting the duration of the show. Stage hypnosis is a unique performance in that it involves "real" people from the audience responding in a variety of ways, making no two shows the same. There has been debate over the years as to whether some degree of fraud or collusion may be involved in some stage hypnosis acts.

Sometimes a stage hypnosis begins with an induction in which the hypnotist asks the entire audience to close their eyes and listen to his words. He lulls everyone participating into a relaxed state with which he may observe who is more susceptible to be hypnotized. Often, people are simply unable to relax and "go with" the hypnotist's instructions due to an inability to relax and allow their minds to follow instructions without conscious thought or simply determination to not be induced.

There are many behaviours that can be observed of those who "go under," such as slumping in their seat, head lolling to the side, falling into the lap of someone next to them, eye lids flickering, and an inability to wake when spoken to or prodded unless done so by the hypnotist himself. For those who are simply watching this show and seeing the person next to them become induced, it can be frightening to witness.

The people whom the hypnotist saw to be easily induced the deepest are approached individually. He will speak briefly to the person and learn their name at which time he may say a few words to them and command them to sleep. For example: "Are you tired, Jane? Would you like to sleep now? Go ahead - SLEEP." Normally this action will cause the individual to immediately appear to have fallen asleep, accompanied by the individual falling to the side. The hypnotist will then speak once more to the person and in the same manner command the person to wake. If this person seems to have been deeply hypnotized but can also wake easily seems unaware of what happened, he or she will be asked to go on the stage.

Once several people are assembled, the hypnotist will begin with inducing each of them and testing them to make sure they are perfectly under. If someone is not working well enough they may be asked to leave. Those who remain are the ones who cannot be woken, even by loud audiences and shouts. They only respond to the hypnotist. He will begin with small commands for action and move up to grand requests. For example, the subjects may first be told to act as if they were cold in a relatively warm room, and by the end of the night, they are showing the audience what their first kisses were like.

[edit] Self-hypnosis

Main article: Autosuggestion

Self-hypnosis (or autosuggestion) hypnosis in which a person hypnotizes himself or herself without the assistance of another person to serve as the hypnotist — is a staple of hypnotherapy-related self-help programs. It is most often used to help the self-hypnotist stay on a diet, overcome smoking or some other addiction, or to generally boost the hypnotized person's self-esteem. It is rarely used for the more complex or controversial uses of hypnotism, which require the hypnotist to monitor the hypnotized person's reactions and responses and respond accordingly. Most people who practice self-hypnosis require a focus in order to become fully hypnotized; there are many computer programs on the market that can ostensibly help in this area, though few, if any, have been scientifically proven to aid self-hypnosis.

Some people use devices known as mind machines to help them go into self-hypnosis more readily. A mind machine consists of glasses with different colored flashing LEDs on the inside, and headphones. The LEDs stimulate the visual channel while the headphones stimulate the audio channel with similar or slightly different frequencies designed to produce a certain mental state. A common occurrence is the use of binaural beats in the audio which is said to produce hypnosis more readily.

[edit] Walking Hypnosis

Also known as environmental hypnosis, this, as defined by hypnosis online, is a naturally occurring trance that one can enter whilst performing a monotonous repetetive task, such as walking or gardening, or in sedentary pursuits such as listening to a lecture or reading, in which one's attention drifts from the task into a trance-like state, often known as "zoning out". This natural reaction to boredom is often harnessed by athletes to render them oblivious to distractions, especially physical symptoms of pain and fatigue, and the state is known in this context as being "in the zone".

[edit] Waking Hypnosis

This phenomenon, as expounded by Melvin Powers in 1955, involves altering the behaviour of a subject by suggestion without inducing a trance. Related to the placebo effect, a subject becomes subconsciously convinced that what they are being told is inevitable reality, for example that the air in the room will cause them to swallow. They can be convinced that a completely benign substance is actually a drug that will induce whatever effect is suggested. In order to work, the subject must completely trust the source of the suggestion or be subconsciously convinced by a calm authoritative tone.

Well trained hypnotherapists and hypnotists know that people are constantly in a state of waking hypnosis. For example, when a person asks someone to "have a seat" and the person sits in the chair offered, this is the same process by which a subject will accept or reject a hypnotists suggestion. This process is similar to goodluck charms that work because you believe in them.

[edit] Mass application

Influencing the crowds of common longings and yearnings by a demagogue is called mass hypnosis. Generally, mass hypnosis is applied to religious sessions. Many forms of music and dance can be used to create religious trance.^[14]

[edit] Indirect application

In addition to direct application of hypnosis (that is, treatment of conditions by means of hypnosis), there is also indirect application, wherein hypnosis is used to facilitate another procedure. Some people seem more able to display 'enhanced functioning', such as the suppression of pain, while utilizing hypnosis.

[edit] Possible Dangers of Hypnosis

[edit] Abreaction

Some psychologists and other mental health professionals are concerned that practitioners of hypnosis who are unlicensed health professionals might evoke intense emotions in their clients that they are untrained to handle. These abreactions might occur when spontaneously or purposefully recalling traumatic events or, some believe, spontaneous mental breakdowns.

[edit] False Memory

False memory obtained via hypnosis has figured prominently in many investigations and court cases, including cases of alleged sexual abuse. There is no scientific way to prove that any of these recollections are completely accurate.

Many individuals can and have been led by an errant hypnotist to believe in things that they later were able to show did not happen have retracted allegations of such abuse (for instance, [2]).

The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one",^[22] and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication".^[23] (See also false memory).

[edit] Popular culture

The notion of hypnotism has elicited many presentations in popular culture. Intrinsically, the notion that people are susceptible to commands outside their conscious control can be an effective way of representing the notion of the fallible narrator.

[edit] Popular Misconceptions

Many works of fiction, such as movies, television programs, and comic books portray hypnotism as a form of total mind control; however, most authorities agree that this is an exaggeration. Portrayals in these forms of media foster a number of popular misconceptions are often taken to be true by the public at large, adding to the controversy surrounding hypnosis.

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[edit] Control

Some believe that hypnotism is a form of mind control and/or brainwashing that can control a person's behavior and judgement and therefore could potentially cause them harm. These beliefs are not generally based on scientific evidence, as there is no scientific consensus on whether mind control even exists.^[25][26]

[edit] Hypnosis is caused by the hypnotist's power

Due to the stage hypnotist's showmanship and their perpetuated illusion of possessing mysterious abilities, hypnosis is often seen as caused by the hypnotist's power. The reality is the hypnotist has no power other than to offer suggestions which the subject or client may choose to respond to or not to respond to.^[27]

[edit] Can a person become 'stuck' in hypnosis?

The trance state is ultimately controlled by the client who may choose to terminate the hypnotic process at will. While a subject may want to enjoy the comfort of the trance state for as long as possbile, it is literally impossible to become stuck in hypnosis.^[27]

[edit] One is unconscious and unaware in hypnosis

While the word 'Hypnosis' is derived from the Greek word for 'sleep' and many hypnotists still use the language of 'Sleep' and 'Awake', hypnosis is not sleep. From the mental standpoint, a hypnotic subject is relaxed yet alert and always aware at some level.^[27]

[edit] Weak-mindedness

Due to the popular but incorrect notion of hypnosis as mind control, some people believe that the ability to experience hypnosis is related to strength and soundness of mind. However, scientists note that personality traits such as gullibility or submissiveness or factors such as low intelligence are not related to hypnotize-ability. Research studies suggest neither intelligence, sex, nor personality traits affect responsiveness to hypnosis and that hypnotize-ability may in fact be hereditary or genetic in nature.^[11]

[edit] Overactive Imagination

Another misconception in popular culture is that hypnosis is often the product of vivid imaginations and that hypnotic phenomena is merely imagined in the mind. However, research indicates many imaginative people do not fare well as good hypnotic subjects. Furthermore, studies using PET scans have shown that hypnotized subjects suggested to have auditory hallucinations demonstrated regional blood flow in the same areas of the brain as real hearing, whereas subjects merely imagining hearing noise did not.^[11]

[edit] Hypnosis in Popular Media

Popular magician/mentalist, "The Amazing Kreskin",^[28] is noted to dispute the validity of Hypnosis and once offered a $100,000 to anyone who can prove such a thing as a 'hypnotic trance' exists to his satisfaction.

The Showtime Network television show Bullshit!, which features comedy duo Penn & Teller, took a skeptical look at hypnosis in one of their episodes.

The British car show Top Gear featured one of the presenters, Richard Hammond, getting hypnotized. He was put to sleep, and when he woke up he showed a number of personality and mental changes, including not remembering how to drive a car, and thinking that a miniature child's version of a Porsche 911 was his own car, and attempting to drive it around in the studio.

[edit] References

[edit] See also

• Chicken hypnotism
• Highway hypnosis
• Hypnagogia
• Hypnotherapy
• Hypnofetishism
• Hypnosis (novel)
• Hypnosurgery
• Neuro-linguistic programming
• Post-hypnotic suggestion
• Sedative (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug)

[edit] External links

Look up Hypnosis in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Society of Clinical Hypnosis, Resources for Research and Teaching: Hypnosis and Related States Research Database
• HypnosisAndSuggestion.org Exploring the science behind hypnosis
• American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis
• Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary, skeptical review of the veracity of hypnosis.
• Scientific American Article on Hypnosis
• Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com
• The National Council for Hypnotherapy The only non-for-profit governing body in the UK
• The (British) National Register of Advanced Hypnotherapists
• American Psychotherapy and Medical Hypnosis Association
• American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, founded by Milton Erickson in 1957: "Promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications."
• National Guild of Hypnotists (USA)
• International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis

British Society for Clinical Psychophysiology accreditation for clinical hypnotherapy courses and individual practitioners