中国のネット検閲
出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』
中国のインターネット検閲とは幅広いさまざまな法律や管理規則の事である。これら法律により中国政府により60のインターネット上の規制がかけられている。そして検閲システムは国内地方ISP、会社、組織に幅広く実行されている。経済特別区の香港とマカオ、及び中華民国は独自のシステムを構築しているのでこの検閲には組み込まれていない。
目次 |
[編集] 施行
あるサイトはブロックされ、しかしながらよく似たサイトが許されてたり、ある市でブロックされていて他の市で許されていたりして、その検閲はほとんどギクシャクしており、とって付けたようである。[1]その検閲はよく特別な日に無くなる。例えばニューヨークタイムズによれば江沢民がプライベートなインタビューで特別にその検閲について聞かれて彼が、詳しく調べると言ったときにブロックが解除されたとしている。2001年上海APECサミットの時、通常ブロックされているCNN、NBC、ワシントンポストといったメディア・ソースが突然アクセス可能となった。2001年以降こういった検閲は恒久的偏見でより一層ゆったりとしたものとなっている。今は上述の3サイトの過去に言及したものについては中国本土からアクセス可能である。実際ほとんどの外国のニュース系ウェブサイトはアクセス出来るが、しかしながらBBCを含む幾つかのサイトは引き続きブロックされている。中国本土の当局は頻繁にインターネットに対する条例を発布するがそれらは強制的でないか若しくは無視される。それら条例の施行する際の問題点はインターネット全体が誰の管轄なのか決定することであり、様々な省庁や中央や地方などの役所の縄張り争いを引き起こすからだ。中国国務院情報省(国务院信息办公室 Chinese State Council Information Office)が条例を発布するが、他の中国本土の警備機関も発言権はある。中国でインターネットに対する様々な条例が発布されていることはそれら検閲が上手く機能していないという現れであるという法学者もいる。なぜならば新しい条例は前の条例に対して言及していないのでそれら条例は忘れられているからだ。
[編集] 金盾
詳細は金盾参照
金盾は中国においては金盾工程(金盾プロジェクト)とよばれている。これは中国大陸外の国々においてもGolden Shield Projectや、Great Firewall of Chinaとして知られている(万里の長城をGreat Wall of Chinaといい、それにネットワークでのfirewallである金盾をかけている)。そのシステムはインターネットのゲートウェイプロクシサーバとファイアーウォールによりIPアドレスをブロックする。特定サイトのリクエストがきたらそのシステムは選択的にDNSキャッシュ・ポイズニングをかける。中国政府はインターネットのコンテンツを体系的に試験しているように思えるが、このシステムは技術的に割に合っていないように思われる。
[編集] 技術情報
様々な検閲方法をここに記載する。
- IPアドレスブロックキング ある特定のIPアドレスへの接続は拒絶する。もしそのブロックされているウェブサイトがホストサーバならば、同じサーバ内のすべてのウェブサイトがブロックされる。このブロックはTCPプロトコルを用いる通信方式つまり、HTTP、FTP、POP等に行われる。典型的な迂回方法はプロクシを用いることだがプロクシ経由でさえブロックされている事もままにあり、ウィキペディアのようなサイトもプロクシでブロックされる。Googleのような大きなサイトは迂回するための代替IPを設けているが、その新しいIPまでもブロックされるようになった。
- DNSフィルタリング(DNS書き換え) ドメイン名の解決をさせないか、もしくは間違ったIPアドレスを通知する。この影響はTCPプロトコルを用いる通信方式つまり、HTTP、FTP、POP等に影響する。このブロッキングの典型的迂回方法は正しいドメイン名を返すドメインネームサーバを見つける事であるが、ドメインネームサーバも同様にブロッキングの対象である。
また、他の迂回方法としては他のソースからIPアドレスを判別し分かっているのならDNSをそのものを迂回するという方法もある。例としてはウェブブラウザでドメイン名を打つ代わりにIPアドレスを打てばよい。
- URLフィルタリング URLの規定の如何にかかわらるURLに含まれている文字をスキャンする. これはHTTPプロトコルに影響する。 典型的な迂回方法はURLの文字コードにESCを用いる事やもしくはVPNやSSLのように暗号化されたプロトコルを用いることである。[2]
- パケットフィルタリング TCPパケットの中にある一定量以上の中国が検閲している言葉が含まれていた場合、そのTCPパケット通信は遮断される。[3]この影響はTCPプロトコルを用いる通信つまり、HTTP、FTP、POP等に影響する。しかしサーチエンジンのページはさらに検閲がきつくなる。典型的な迂回方法はHTMLを避ける為にVPNやSSLの要に暗号化されたプロトコルを用いたり、TCPスタックサイズを小さくすることでパケットサイズを小さくし、よりおとなしめな文にする事で回避できる。
- コネクションリセット もし以前のTCPコネクションが検閲でブロックされたとして、次からのコネクションが両サイドとも30秒にブロックされる。このブロックは地域に差があるが、ブロックされている地域では他の人からの接続でもブロックされる。回避方法はファイアーウォールからのリセット要求を無視する。
[編集] 検閲を受けるサイト
検閲を受けるサイトを以下に記述する。
- 台湾関連の政府、メディア、組織関連のウェブサイトもしくは宗教的サイト
- チベット仏教は中国式の経典を提供させられている
- わいせつ、ポルノ、反道徳的なウェブサイト
- ダライラマに関係するもしくはそのチベット独立運動関連のウェブサイト
ブロックされたウェブサイトはサーチエンジンでより検索頻度の少ないウェブサイトにさせられる 例: 百度、 Google中国
ニューヨークタイムズによればグーグルは国外にアクセスするコンピュータを中国国内に設置した。もしその設置場所を接近禁止にすればグーグルを中国のブロックリストに載せると言っているが、グーグル中国は一度その設置場所を接近禁止にすればウェブサイトを再作成させられるだろうとしている。
[編集] 検閲
[編集] サーチエンジン
ブロックの一角に中国のサーチエンジンでの特定の言葉の検索結果に対するフィルタリングがある。 中国国内サーチエンジン(例:百度)と共に国際的なサーチエンジン(Yahoo!、Google等)もフィルタリングをされている 中国版のサーチエンジンで検閲を受けている言葉を検索すると他の言語版に比べて少ない結果が返ってくる。 加えてきびしく検閲されているコンテンツは金盾によって遮断され数分間復旧しない。この影響はHTTPとPOPのネットワーク接続に適用されるが、こちらのリセットはより頻繁に起こる。. サーチエンジンが検閲を受ける前は多くのサーチエンジンはブロックされていた(例:Googleやアルタビスタ、テクノラティ等)。
[編集] 現代
2004年からSMTH BBSとYTHTBBSを含む幾つかの大学の掲示板は一般からのアクセスが制限または切断されている。
[編集] 地方企業
Although blocking foreign sites has received much attention in the West, this is actually only a part of the PRC effort to censor the Internet. Although the government rarely practices this, much more effective is the ability to censor content providers within mainland China, as the ISPs and other service providers are restricting customers' actions for fear of being found legally liable for customers' conduct. The service providers are assumed an editorial role with regard to customer content, thus became publishers, and legally responsible for libel and other torts committed by customers.
Although the government does not have the physical resources to monitor all Internet chat rooms and forums, the threat of being shut down has caused Internet content providers to employ internal staff, colloquially known as "big mamas", who stop and remove forum comments which may be politically sensitive. In Shenzhen, these duties are partly taken over by a pair of police-created cartoon characters, Jingjing and Chacha, who help extend the online 'police presence' of the Shenzhen authorities.
However, Internet content providers have adopted some counterstrategies. One is to go forth posting politically sensitive stories and removing them only when the government complains. In the hours or days in which the story is available online, people read it, and by the time the story is taken down, the information is already public. One notable case in which this occurred was in response to a school explosion in 2001, when local officials tried to suppress the fact the explosion resulted from children illegally producing fireworks. By the time local officials forced the story to be removed from the Internet, the news had already been widely disseminated.
In addition, Internet content providers often replace censored forum comments with white space which allows the reader to know that comments critical of the authorities had been submitted, and often to guess what they must have been.
[編集] 国際企業
One controversial issue is whether foreign companies should supply equipment which assists in the blocking of sites to the PRC government. Some argue that it is wrong for companies to profit from censorship including restrictions on freedom of the press and freedom of speech. Others argue that equipment being supplied, from companies such as the American based Cisco Systems Inc., is standard Internet infrastructure equipment and that providing this sort of equipment actually aids the flow of information, and that the PRC is fully able to create its own infrastructure without Western help. By contrast, human rights advocates such as Human Rights Watch and media groups such as Reporters Without Borders argue that if companies would stop contributing to the authorities' censorship efforts the government could be forced to change.
A similar dilemma faces foreign content providers such as Yahoo!, AOL, Google and Skype who abide by PRC government wishes, including having internal content monitors, in order to be able to operate within mainland China. Also, in accordance with mainland Chinese laws, Microsoft began to censor the content of its blog service MSN Spaces, arguing continuing to provide Internet services is more beneficial to the Chinese.[4] Michael Anti, whose blog on MSN Spaces was removed by Microsoft, agreed that the Chinese are better off with MSN Spaces than without it.[5]
Sites that host software that can be used to circumvent the censorship, such as Freenet and Peek-a-Booty, are also banned. (For some time, this included the entire open source software repository at SourceForge, as it hosts the Freenet project, among thousands of others.)
[編集] Recent developments
In 2003, Internet activists and journalists led an online uprising that eventually forced the abolishment of the Custody and repatriation procedure, and the establishment of constitutional committee of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.[6]
On July 11, 2003, the PRC government granted licenses to open Internet cafe chains. The licenses were awarded to 10 firms, including three affiliated to the PRC Ministry of Culture: China Audio-Visual Publishing House, which plans to set up 50,000 cafes in 40 cities in three years, the China Cultural Relics Information Center and the China National Library. A fourth operator, China Youth Net, is affiliated with the politically powerful Central Committee of China Youth League. The other six include state-owned telecoms operators such as China United Telecommunications Corporation, parent of China Unicom Ltd, Great Wall Broadband Network Service Co Ltd, or Internet service providers such as www.readchina.com, which belongs to Read Investment Holdings Co., a high-tech conglomerate founded in 1988 which has annual revenues of 10 billion yuan. Business analysts and foreign Internet operators regard the licenses as intended to clamp down on information deemed harmful to the PRC government.
In the summer of 2005, the PRC purchased over 200 routers from an American company, Cisco Systems that will allow the PRC government a more advanced technological censoring ability.[7]
On October 18, 2005, the PRC government restarted its policy of blocking access to Wikipedia. It is currently difficult to access Wikipedia directly, or the majority of articles concerning the censorship thereof, from within mainland China.[8]
On February 14, 2006, a group of former senior Communist party officials in China criticized the Internet censorship, stating that strict censorship may "sow the seeds of disaster" for China's political transition.[9] On the next day, a government spokesman responded that its rules are "fully in line" with the rest of the world and that "no one had been arrested just for writing online content."[10]
In February 2006, Google made a significant concession against this Great Firewall, in exchange for equipment installation on Chinese soil, by blocking websites which the Chinese Government illegalized.[11] TIME reported that Google protests that it is in a tough situation but says it ultimately has to obey local laws.
On March 8, 2006, two popular Chinese blogs shut themselves down to observe the International Women's Day and to protest their opinion that reporting on their blogs by Western media disproportionally focused on censorship. Reporters Without Borders, BBC, Reuters and Voice of America were misled by the ambiguous shutdown notice and reported without validation.[12]
In May 2006, Chinese Internet users encountered difficulties when connecting to Hotmail, a popular email service provided by Microsoft. Although Microsoft stated that the reason was a technical issue, many media reported their speculation and linked the event to Internet censorship.[13][14]
Still in May 2006, users have been reporting problems accessing POP mailboxes in many big mail providers (although POP-over-SSL works fine). In the last week of May, Google and many of its services became unreachable. It is as yet unconfirmed whether these are instances of blocking, or something else.
In July 2006, researchers at Cambridge University claim to have defeated the firewall by ignoring the TCP reset packets.[15]
On August 7, 2006, some Wikipedians in China found they cannot access Wikipedia via some proxy tools. Wikimedia proxy services in the United States and in Korea have been masked by the Great Firewall. And the blocking has been enforced to URL-level because if users in China link to the URL addresses of Wikipedia (all languages), Wikimedia Foundation, Wikimania 2006 and Chinese Wikimedia Conference 2006 websites, users will get the "connection is been reset" error. Some Wikipedians in China believe this might be related with a two-page news story entitled "Wikipedia-maniac.",[16][17] which appeared in the August 6 issue of the Beijing News (新京報).
As of (at least) September 27, 2006, Blogspot blogs (which had been blocked previously) can be accessed within China.
As of (at least) October 10, 2006, English Mediawiki sites can be accessed without even a proxy in China, though Chinese sites were reported to be blocked. The secure server, on the other hand, cannot, for whatever reason, be accessed. Some China Telecom users report access to the larger part of Wikipedia, including pages regarding Taiwan, but not other more politically sensitive pages. This article is accessible as of October 26, 2006 from Beijing. The Chinese government has currently decided to permit access to the English Wikipedia although some areas are not accessible in the PRC.
[編集] 反響
[編集] 性的サイトの自由化
Although restrictions on political information remain as strong as ever, several sexually oriented blogs began appearing in early 2004. Women using the web aliases Muzi Mei (木子美) and Zhuying Qingtong (竹影青瞳) wrote online diaries of their sex lives and became minor celebrities. This was widely reported and criticized in mainland Chinese news media, but has not resulted in any real crackdown as of yet. This has coincided with an artistic nude photography fad (including a self-published book by dancer Tang Jiali) and the appearance of pictures of minimally clad women or even topless photos in a few mainland Chinese newspapers, magazines and websites. It is too soon to tell how far this trend will go, but increasingly, censorship is applicable to political content rather than to sexuality. This does not hold true for many dating and "adult chat" sites, both Chinese and foreign, which have been blocked. Some, however, continue to be accessible although this appears to be due more to the Chinese government's ignorance of their existence than any particular policy of leniency.
In 2005, The Register reported that a research has found up to 20,000 Chinese regularly chat undressed.[18]
[編集] 企業責任
On November 7 2005 an alliance of investors and researchers representing twenty-six companies in the U.S., Europe and Australia with over US $21 billion in joint assets announced that they were urging businesses to protect freedom of expression and pledged to monitor technology companies that do business in countries violating human rights, such as China. On December 21 2005 the UN, OSCE and OAS special mandates on freedom of expression called on Internet corporations to "work together ... to resist official attempts to control or restrict use of the Internet."
[編集] ブレイクスルーへの努力
The firewall is largely ineffective at preventing the flow of information and is rather easily circumvented by determined parties by using proxy servers outside the firewall. VPN and SSH connections to outside mainland China are not blocked, so circumventing all of the censorship and monitoring features of the Great Firewall of China is trivial for those who have these secure connection methods to computers outside mainland China available to them.
Neither the Tor website nor the Tor network are blocked, making Tor (in conjunction with Privoxy) an easily acquired and effective tool for circumvention of the censorship controls. Tor maintains a public list of entry nodes, so the authorities could easily block it if they had the inclination. According to the Tor FAQ sections 6.4 and 7.9, Tor is vulnerable to timing analysis by Chinese authorities, so it allows a breach of anonymity. Thus for the moment, Tor allows uncensored downloads and uploads, although no guarantee can be made with regard to freedom from repercussions.
In addition to Tor, there are various HTTP/HTTPS Tunnel Services, which work in a similar way as Tor. At least one of them, Your Freedom, is confirmed to be working from China and also offers encryption features for the transmitted traffic.
It was common in the past to use Google's cache feature to view blocked websites. However, this feature of Google seems to be under some level of blocking, as access is now erratic and does not work for blocked websites. Currently the block is mostly circumvented by using proxy servers outside the firewall, and is not difficult to carry out for those determined to do so. Some well-known proxy servers have also been blocked.
Some Chinese citizens use the Google Mirror elgooG after China blocked Google. It is believed that elgooG survived the Great Firewall of China because the firewall operators thought that elgooG was not a fully functional version of Google.
As Falun Gong websites are generally inaccessible from mainland China, practitioners have launched a company named UltraReach Internet Corp and developed a piece of software named UltraSurf to enable people in mainland China to access restricted web sites via Internet Explorer without being detected.
Other techniques used include Freenet, a peer-to-peer distributed data store allowing members to anonymously send or retrieve information, and TriangleBoy.
[編集] 参照
- ^ 中国大陸におけるwikipediaへのアクセス封鎖
- ^ 参照 en:Wikipedia:Advice to users using Tor to bypass the Great Firewall
- ^ 参照en:List of words censored by search engines in Mainland China若しくはzh:防火长城关键字列表
- ^ "Congressional Testimony: “The Internet in China: A Tool for Freedom or Suppression?”" Microsoft.com. .
- ^ "Roundtable: The Struggle to Control Freedom" PBS.org: 2005-04-11.
- ^ http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/china/beijing08/voices.htm
- ^ http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/1120959457574_23/?hub=TopStories
- ^ http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=15374
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4712134.stm
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4715044.stm
- ^ See "Google Under the Gun," TIME, Feb 13, 2006.
- ^ http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB114229717280997182-dm2Z12Q1rTk1wdKRuf3aClnnFiI_20060321.html
- ^ http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,19133885-36375,00.html
- ^ http://news.ft.com/cms/s/7d186064-e1e2-11da-bf4c-0000779e2340.html
- ^ http://www.zdnetasia.com/news/security/0,39044215,39372326,00.htm
- ^ http://www.nanfangdaily.com.cn/southnews/pdf/xjb/20060806/B11.Pdf
- ^ http://www.nanfangdaily.com.cn/southnews/pdf/xjb/20060806/B12.Pdf
- ^ (2005-08-30). "Chinese go mental for nude web chat" The Register.