南北战争

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南北戰爭
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美國南北戰爭中三場重要戰役，由順時針方向，從右上方起：賓夕凡尼亞的蓋茨堡戰役、阿肯色的罕德曼堡壘戰役、田納西的斯通斯河戰役
日期： 1861年4月12日–1865年4月9日 地点： 大部份位於美國南方的州份 結果： 北方聯邦軍勝利；開始重建美國南方，並廢除奴隸制 起因： 桑特堡戰役 領土變更：
參戰方
美利堅合眾國 （聯邦政府）	美利堅聯盟國 （邦聯政府）
指揮官
亞伯拉罕·林肯 尤里西斯·格蘭特	傑佛遜·戴維斯 羅伯特·李
兵力
2,200,000人	1,064,000人
傷亡
總死亡人數360,000人， 110,000人在戰事中陣亡， 275,200人受傷	總死亡人數258,000人， 93,000人在戰事中陣亡， 137,000人受傷

南北戰爭（又稱美國内戰；American Civil War）是美國歷史上一場大規模軍事衝突，參戰雙方为美利堅合眾國（簡稱聯邦）和美利堅聯盟國（簡稱邦聯）。這場戰爭的起因為美國南部十一州以亞伯拉罕·林肯就任總統1861年為由而陸續退出联邦，另成立以杰斐逊·戴维斯为“總統”的政府，並驅逐駐紮南方的聯邦軍，而林肯下令攻打“叛亂”州。此戰不但改變當日美國的政經情勢，也對日後美國的民間社會產生巨大的影響。

[编辑] 起因

請參見美國內戰起因

[编辑] 南北對立與衝突

美国共和党人，林肯雖然不是解放黑奴的倡言者，但他認為蓄奴不人道，反对擴大蓄奴，因此南方仇视他。1860年，他當選總統，南卡罗来纳州在1861年旋即宣布退出聯邦……

[编辑] 國家分裂

戰爭期間的勢力分佈圖：深藍色部分為聯邦統治地，淺藍色部分是承認聯邦的邊界州，紅色部分是邦聯統治地，未著色處為內戰前尚未成立的州領地。

[编辑] 南方諸州

共有七個州於1860年美國總統選舉後，林肯就任前迅速脫離聯邦。這些州分別是：

• 南卡羅萊納州(1860年12月21日)
• 密西西比州(1861年1月9日)
• 佛羅里達州(1861年1月10日)
• 阿拉巴馬州(1861年1月11日)
• 格鲁吉亚州(1861年1月19日)
• 路易斯安納州(1861年1月26日)
• 德克薩斯州(1861年2月1日)

这些奴隶制和棉花种植园农业占主导地位的“深南”州(Deep South)于1861年2月4日成立了“美利堅聯盟國”(Confederate States of America)，傑佛森·戴维斯(Jefferson Davis)為總統，並且依據美國憲法建立政府。在南卡羅萊納的薩姆特堡战役(Battle of Fort Sumter后)，林肯号召所有其余州的部队收复薩姆特堡，结果維琴尼亞、阿肯色、北卡羅萊納、田纳西四州脫離联邦。

[编辑] 邊際州

在維吉尼亞州周圍的馬里蘭州、德拉瓦州、密蘇里州及肯塔基州雖然仍保有奴隸制度（亦即所謂的「奴隸州（Slave States）」），但並未加入南方邦聯，這四州以及西維吉尼亞州（維吉尼亞州西北方部分郡縣的居民拒絕脫離美國聯邦政府，於是另組西維吉尼亞州加入聯邦）成為南北戰爭的邊界州。

德拉瓦州雖然在1860年的選舉支持南方的民主黨候選人John C. Breckinridge，但是畜奴制度並不普遍，是以並未考慮脫離聯邦政府。馬里蘭州的多數公民當初亦支持Breckinridge，不過隨著一八六一年的巴爾第摩暴動因聯邦政府宣布戒嚴法而平息之後，州議會於同年四月廿七日否決了脫離聯邦政府的提案。密蘇里州以及肯塔基州雖然並未脫離美國聯邦政府，但是部分政治人物組成了所謂的獨立政府（"secessions"），並且獲得了南方邦聯的認可。.

密蘇里州州長克雷泵．傑克森（Claiborne F. Jackson）因為支持南方的獨立運動，所以在1861年離開了該州首府傑佛森市，並於娜秀鎮（Neosho）組成流亡政府（government-in-exile），並宣布脫離聯邦；南方邦聯則於同年十月卅日予以承認。同一時間，美國聯邦政府在密蘇里召集制憲大會否決脫離聯邦的提案並且另組州政府。

南部聯盟宣稱擁有的領土

雖然肯塔基州並未脫離聯邦，但是在南北戰爭期間該州長期宣布中立。在南軍短暫佔領該州期間，同情南方的民眾以及政治人物發起了獨立大會，並選出州長，此一政府旋即獲得南方邦聯的承認。

如前所述，維吉尼亞州西北部的居民因為拒絕脫離聯邦政府，最終脫離維吉尼亞州，並宣布將逐步廢除奴隸制度，該州於一八六三年正式以西維吉尼亞州的名義加入聯邦。除維吉尼亞州之外，其他南方各州也曾零星發生類似的反獨立運動，不過都被南方邦聯以軍事戒嚴的方式敉平。另一方面，新墨西哥州雖然效忠聯邦政府，但是該州南方各郡縣決議脫離聯邦，並以亞利桑那州的名義加入南方邦聯。雖然新墨西哥州從未宣布脫離聯邦政府，但是南方邦聯宣稱擁有新墨西哥州的主權，並曾於1862年三月十三日至四月六日間，短暫地佔領其首府聖地菲（Santa Fe），不過南方邦聯並未進而籌組新墨西哥州臨時州政府。

[编辑] 戰爭過程

[编辑] 戰爭初始

主条目: 美国内战起因, 大事时间轴

美國各州與中央政府之間曾有過一場持續的競爭，不管是對於中央的權力或者公民的效忠，而這場競爭幾乎自共和成立以來便已揭幕。例如1798年的肯塔基及維基尼亞決議案(Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions)便公然反對客籍法和鎮壓叛亂法(Alien and Sedition Acts)，另外在哈特福特會議(Hartford Convention)中，新英格蘭表示反對麥迪遜總統與1812年戰爭。

於1828與1832，國會通過了保護關稅以利北方各州的貿易。由於這項關稅政策將對倚重對外貿易的南卡羅萊那州及其它南方各州造成經濟上之衝擊，因此被譏為"嫌惡關稅"。對此南卡羅萊那州議會召開州代表大會，通過了聯邦法令廢止權條例(Ordinance of Nullification)，宣佈1828及1832年的關稅法於該州內無效作廢。州議會並通過相關法令以貫徹該項條例，包括授權組織軍隊與購置武器。為回應南卡羅萊那州的威脅，國會通過了"軍力動員法"(Force Bill)，而安德魯·傑克森總統於1832年11月派遣七艘小型海軍船隻與一艘武力軍艦前往查理斯頓。12月10日，傑克森振辭反制"聯邦法令廢止權條例"的一方。

在内战前夕，美国是由四个截然不同的区域组成的国家：1.東北部(即今新英格蘭)-成長中的工業與商業及相應之人口密度增長; 2.西北部(即今中西部Midwest)-自由農民於此迅速發展，拜西北條例(Northwest Ordinance)之賜此處永無奴隸制度; 3.中南方(the Upper South)-墾殖農場，但部份區域經濟衰退; 4.西南方-雨後春筍般蓬勃發展的棉花經濟區。基於兩個本質迥異的勞工制度，社會經濟在不同地區中映射出完全不同之影像--北方的自由勞役制度與南方的奴隸制度，因此導致十九世紀中葉起南北兩地轅轍互異的社會觀。

南北戰爭爆發前, 美國憲法provided a basis for peaceful debate over the future of government, and had been able to regulate conflicts of interest and conflicting visions for the new, rapidly expanding nation. For many years, compromises had been made to balance the number of "自由州s" and "奴隸州s" so that there would be a balance in the Senate. The last slave state admitted was Texas in 1845, with five free states admitted between 1846 and 1859. The admission of Kansas as a slave state had recently been blocked, and it was due to enter as a free state instead in 1861年. The rise of mass democracy in the 工業化 North, the breakdown of the old two-party system, and increasingly virulent and hostile sectional ideologies in the mid-nineteenth century made it highly unlikely, if not impossible, to bring about the gentlemanly compromises of the past (such as the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850) necessary to avoid crisis. Also the existence of slave labor in the South made the Northern States the preferred destination for new immigrants from Europe resulting in an increasing dominance of the North in Congress and in Presidential elections, due to population size.

Sectional tensions changed in their nature and intensity rapidly during the 1850年代. 美國共和黨在1854年成立，這個新生的政黨反對將奴隸制在美國西部地區實行。 Although only a small share of Northerners favored measures to abolish slavery in the South, the Republicans were able to mobilize popular support among Northerners and Westerners who did not want to compete against slave labor if the system were expanded beyond the South. The Republicans won the support of many ex-Whigs and Northern ex-Democrats concerned about the South's disproportionate influence in the Senate, the Buchanan administration, and the Supreme Court.

Meanwhile, the profitability of cotton, or "King Cotton," as it was touted, solidified the South's dependence on the plantation system and its foundation: slave labor. A small class of slave barons, especially cotton planters, dominated the politics and society of the South.

亞伯拉罕·林肯
第16任美國總統（1861-1865）

Southern secession was triggered by the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was a moderate in his opposition to slavery. He pledged to do all he could to oppose the expansion of slavery into the territories (thus also preventing the admission of any additional slave states to the Union); but he also said the federal government did not have the power to abolish slavery in the states in which it already existed, and that he would enforce Fugitive Slave Laws. The southern states expected increasing hostility to their "peculiar institution"; not trusting Lincoln, and mindful that many other Republicans were intent on complete abolition of slavery. Lincoln had even encouraged abolitionists with his 1858 "House divided" speech[1], though that speech was also consistent with an eventual end of slavery achieved gradually and voluntarily with compensation to slave-owners and resettlement of former slaves.

In addition to Lincoln's presidential victory, the slave states had lost the balance of power in the Senate and were facing a future as a perpetual minority after decades of nearly continuous control of the presidency and the Congress. Southerners also felt they could no longer prevent protectionist tariffs such as the Morrill Tariff.

The Southern justification for a unilateral right to secede cited the doctrine of states' rights, which had been debated before with the 1798年 肯塔基及維基尼亞決議案, and the 1832年 Nullification Crisis with regard to tariffs.

林肯入主白宮前，有七個州脫離聯邦, and attempted to establish an independent southern government, the Confederate States of America on 1861年2月9日 . They took control of federal forts and property within their boundaries, with little resistance from President Buchanan. Ironically, by seceding, the rebel states weakened any claim to the territories that were in dispute, canceled any obligation for the North to return fugitive slaves, and assured easy passage of many bills and amendments they had long opposed. The Civil War began when Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard opened fire upon Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina on April 12, 1861. There were no casualties from enemy fire in this batt

[编辑] 戰爭中期

Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860 triggered South Carolina's secession from the Union. Lincoln was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South. Leaders in South Carolina had long been waiting for an event that might unite the South against the anti-slavery forces. Once the election returns were certain, a special South Carolina convention declared "that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the name of the 'United States of America' is hereby dissolved." By February 1, 1861, six more Southern states had seceded. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their capital at Montgomery, Alabama. The pre-war peace conference of 1861 met at Washington, D.C. The remaining southern states as yet remained in the Union. Several seceding states seized federal forts within their boundaries; President Buchanan made no military response.

Less than a month later, on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President of the United States. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called the secession "legally void". He stated he had no intent to invade southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.

The South did send delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties, but they were turned down. On April 12, the South fired upon the federal troops stationed at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina until the troops surrendered. Lincoln called for all of the states in the Union to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. Most Northerners hoped that a quick victory for the Union would crush the nascent rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days. This resulted in four more states voting to secede. Once Virginia seceded, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond, Virginia.

Even though the Southern states had seceded, there was considerable anti-secessionist sentiment within several of the seceding states. Eastern Tennessee, in particular, was a hotbed for pro-Unionism. Winston County, Alabama issued a resolution of secession from the state of Alabama. The Red Strings were a prominent Southern anti-secession group.

Winfield Scott created the Anaconda Plan as the Union's main plan of attack during the war.

[编辑] 东部战场 1861–1863

Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at Manassas, Virginia, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces there was halted in the First Battle of Bull Run, or First Manassas, whereupon they were forced back to Washington, D.C., by Confederate troops under the command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General Thomas Jackson received the name of "Stonewall" because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops. Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the U.S. Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end slavery.

Major General George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862.

Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan invaded Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Joseph E. Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then Robert E. Lee defeated him in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. McClellan was stripped of many of his troops to reinforce John Pope's Union Army of Virginia. Pope was beaten spectacularly by Lee in the Northern Virginia Campaign and the Second Battle of Bull Run in August.

Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North, when General Lee led 55,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in American history. Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided justification for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.

When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside suffered near-immediate defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when over ten thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. He was replaced by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863), the largest battle in North American history, which is sometimes considered the war's turning point. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000), again forcing it to retreat to Virginia, never to launch a full-scale invasion of the North again.

[编辑] 西部战场 1861–1863

While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern theater, they crucially failed in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk's invasion of Kentucky enraged the citizens who previously had declared neutrality in the war, turning that state against the Confederacy.

Nashville, Tennessee, fell to the Union early in 1862. Most of the Mississippi was opened with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. New Orleans, Louisiana, was captured in May 1862, allowing the Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi as well. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented unchallenged Union control of the entire river.

Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky was repulsed by Don Carlos Buell at the confused and bloody Battle of Perryville and he was narrowly defeated by William S. Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.

The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga in Georgia, near the Tennessee border, where Bragg, reinforced by the corps of James Longstreet (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of George Henry Thomas, and forced him to retreat to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.

The Union's key strategist and tactician in the west was Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson, which seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers; Shiloh; Vicksburg, Mississippi, cementing Union control of the Mississippi and considered one of the turning points of the war; and Chattanooga, Tennessee, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening an invasion route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.

[编辑] 泛密西西比战场 1861–1865

Though geographically isolated from the battles to the east, a number of military actions took place in the Trans-Mississippi theater, a region encompassing states and territories to the west of the Mississippi River. In 1861 Confederates launched a successful campaign into the territory of present day Arizona and New Mexico. Residents in the southern portions of this territory adopted a secession ordinance of their own and requested that Confederate forces stationed in nearby Texas assist them in removing Union forces still stationed there. The Confederate territory of Arizona was proclaimed by Col. John Baylor after victories at Mesilla, New Mexico, and the capture of several Union forces. Confederate troops were unsuccessful in attempts to press northward in the territory and withdrew from Arizona completely in 1862 as Union reinforcements arrived from California.

The Battle of Glorieta Pass was a small skirmish in terms of both numbers involved and losses (140 Federal, 190 Confederate). Yet the issues were large, and the battle decisive in resolving them. The Confederates might well have taken Fort Union and Denver had they not been stopped at Glorieta. As one Texan put it, "if it had not been for those devils from Pike's Peak, this country would have been ours".

This small battle smashed any possibility of the Confederacy taking New Mexico and the far west territories. In April, Union volunteers from California pushed the remaining Confederates out of present-day Arizona at the Battle of Picacho Pass. In the eastern part of the United States, the fighting dragged on for three more years, but in the Southwest the war was over. [2]

The Union mounted several attempts to capture the trans-Mississippi regions of Texas and Louisiana from 1862 until the war's end. With ports to the east under blockade or capture, Texas in particular became a blockade-running haven. Referred to as the "back door" of the Confederacy, Texas and western Louisiana continued to provide cotton crops that were transferred overland to Matamoros, Mexico, and shipped to Europe in exchange for supplies. Determined to close this trade, the Union mounted several invasion attempts of Texas, each of them unsuccessful. Confederate victories at Galveston, Texas, and the Battle of Sabine Pass repulsed invasion forces. The Union's disastrous Red River Campaign in western Louisiana, including a defeat at the Battle of Mansfield, effectively ended the Union's final invasion attempt of the region until the final fall of the Confederacy. Isolated from events in the east, the Civil War continued in the Trans-Mississippi theater for several months after Robert E. Lee's surrender. The last battle of the war occurred at Palmito Ranch in southern Texas—ironically a Confederate victory.

南北戰爭時各戰役分佈圖

[编辑] “猛虎”格兰特

1863年時格蘭特将军已经控制了整个密西西比河流域，將南方分割成东西两个部分，战略格局从此改变；

[编辑] 南方邦聯瓦解

但北軍在戰略以及經濟上的優勢使得1865年4月李將軍終於放棄了南部聯盟的首都(里士满)，北軍勝利的態勢已經非常明顯， 李將軍在里士滿淪陷後一週內被俘。

1865年5月26日，南軍全數投降，戰事宣告結束。

[编辑] 戰後

The border States of Missouri and Maryland moved during the course of the war to end slavery, 在1864年12月, 国会提议美国宪法第13修正案 , barring slavery throughout the United States; the 13th Amendment was fully ratified by the end of 1865. The 14th Amendment, defining citizenship and giving the Federal government broad power to require the States to provide equal protection of the laws was adopted in 1868. The 15th Amendment guaranteeing black men (but not women) the right to vote was ratified in 1870. The 14th and 15th Amendments reversed the effects of the Supreme Court's Dred Scott decision of 1857, but the 14th Amendment, in particular, had unanticipated and far-reaching effects.

From the election of 1876 until the election of 1964, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas gave no electoral votes to the Republican Party, with South Carolina and Louisiana making an exception only once each. Most other states that had seceded voted overwhelmingly against Republican presidential nominees also, with the same trend predominantly applying in state elections too. This phenomenon was known as the Solid South. However, when Democratic President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act in 1964 Democrats in southern states (sometimes called DixieCrats ) bolted the party, and the South went to Barry Goldwater in the Presidential election of 1964. Despite Goldwater’s crushing loss, Republican support in the South remained strong and most southern states have now become Republican strongholds.

A good deal of ill will among the Southern survivors resulted from the persistent poverty in South, the shift of political power to the North, the destruction inflicted on the South by the Union armies as the end of the war approached, and the Reconstruction program instituted in the South by the Union after the war's end. Bitterness about the war continued for decades. In Vicksburg citizens refused to honor the July 4th holiday for 75 years after the war ended and the Mississippi State Legislature stubbornly refused to ratify the 13th Amendment until 1995.

Likewise the North, while enjoying the economic and political fruits of victory, still harbored resentment over the loss of life, including the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. For decades after the war Republican politicians stirred up memories of the war in order to attack their Democratic opponents (this tactic was known as "waving the bloody shirt). Moreover, both the war and the Reconstruction fight in the years afterward led many people in the North to lose interest in Southern affairs, allowing the Republicans to abandon Reconstruction after the election of 1876 without paying a price with voters. Even as poverty in the South grew it was easy for Northerners to turn a blind eye as Southern politicians had been so effective in arguing to keep the Federal government out of their affairs. Likewise, putting too much attention on Southern problems inevitably meant owning up to the North's abandonment of a strenuous enforcement of Civil Rights protections.

As the generation that lived through the war continued to pass, some attitudes began to change. The election of Franklin Roosevelt to the Presidency in 1932 ushered in a new era for the South. Roosevelt, though a New York native had spent years living at the Warm Springs center in Georgia and had experienced the problems of locals first hand. At the same time, people in the South, like those in the rest of the country began to rethink the role of the federal government in the economy. The net result was a series of public works projects, like the Tennessee Valley Authority which provided the South with the kind of infrastructure found in the rest of the country.

Still, ghosts of the conflict persist. Both the Civil Rights Movement and Conservative anti-Federal Government politics have their roots in the unresolved issues left by the war. Questions of how to approach the history of the war have periodically flared tempers. More often than not these disagreements have involved state sponsored displays of the Confederate flag with one side claiming the flag as a part of the history of the South and the other questioning whether that history is anything to be proud of.

[编辑] 重建南方

战后，南方被美国实行“半军事管制”，但美国联邦政府对奴隶主很宽容，致使重建中的南方一直存在奴隶制的残余，很久以后才摆脱。南方在战后形成了一些三K党。南方的重建一直是很艰难的。

[编辑] 其他

[编辑] 戰爭期間主要戰役

[编辑] 與南北戰爭相關的作品

[编辑] 電影

• 飄/亂世佳人 Gone with the Wind
• 冷山 Cold Mountain
• 战役风云/众神与元帅 Gods and Generals
• 盖茨堡之役>（英文原著《天使杀手》）
• 光荣/光榮戰役 Glory
• 南北军魂
• 與魔鬼共騎 Ride with the Devil

[编辑] 小說

• 飄
• 小婦人

[编辑] 參看條目

• 世界戰爭列表
• 美國內戰起因