58th United States Congress
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The Fifty-eighth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, comprised of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, DC from March 4, 1903 to March 3, 1905, during the last two years of the first administration of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt.
The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Twelfth Census of the United States in 1900. Both chambers had a Republican majority.
[edit] Dates of sessions
- Special session of the Senate: March 5, 1903 - March 19, 1903
- First session: November 9, 1903 - December 7, 1903
- Second session: December 7, 1903 - April 28, 1904
- Third session: December 5, 1904 - March 3, 1905 — a lame duck session
Previous congress: 57th Congress
Next congress: 59th Congress
[edit] Major events
- Main article: Events of 1903; Events of 1904; Events of 1905
[edit] Leadership
[edit] Senate
President of the Senate: (Vice-President) vacant President Pro-Tempore: William P. Frye (Republican)
[edit] House of Representatives
Speaker: Joseph Gurney Cannon (Republican)
[edit] Senators
- 2. John T. Morgan (Dem.)
- 3. Edmund W. Pettus (Dem.)
- 2. James H. Berry (Dem.)
- 3. James P. Clarke (Dem.)
- 3. George C. Perkins (Rep.)
- 1. Thomas R. Bard (Rep.)
- 3. Henry M. Teller (Silver Rep.)
- 2. Thomas M. Patterson (Dem.)
- 3. Orville H. Platt (Rep.)
- 1. Joseph R. Hawley (Rep.)
- 1. L. Heisler Ball (Rep.)
- 2. J. Frank Allee (Rep.)
- 3. Stephen Mallory (Dem.)
- 2. James P. Taliaferro (Dem.)
- 2. Augustus O. Bacon (Dem.)
- 3. Alexander S. Clay (Dem.)
- 2. Fred T. Dubois (Dem.)
- 3. Weldon B. Heyburn (Rep.)
- 2. Shelby M. Cullom (Rep.)
- 3. Albert J. Hopkins (Rep.)
- 3. Charles W. Fairbanks (Rep.) ...resigned March 4, 1905
- 1. Albert J. Beveridge (Rep.)
- 3. William B. Allison (Rep.)
- 2. Jonathan P. Dolliver (Rep.)
- 2. Joseph R. Burton (Rep.)
- 3. Chester I. Long (Rep.)
- 2. Joseph C. S. Blackburn (Dem.)
- 3. James B. McCreary (Dem.)
- 3. Samuel D. McEnery (Dem.)
- 2. Murphy J. Foster (Dem.)
- 1. Eugene Hale (Rep.)
- 2. William P. Frye (Rep.)
- 1. Louis E. McComas (Rep.)
- 3. Arthur P. Gorman (Dem.)
- 2. George F. Hoar (Rep.) ...died September 30, 1904
- Winthrop M. Crane (Rep.) ...appointed to fill vacancy, October 12, 1904
- 1. Henry Cabot Lodge (Rep.)
- 1. Julius C. Burrows (Rep.)
- 2. Russell A. Alger (Rep.)
- 2. Knute Nelson (Rep.)
- 1. Moses E. Clapp (Rep.)
- 1. Hernando D. Money (Dem.)
- 2. Anselm J. McLaurin (Dem.)
- 1. Francis M. Cockrell (Dem.)
- 3. William J. Stone (Dem.)
- 2. William A. Clark (Dem.)
- 1. Paris Gibson (Dem.)
- 2. Joseph H. Millard (Rep.)
- 1. Charles H. Dietrich (Rep.)
- 1. William M. Stewart (Rep.)
- 3. Francis G. Newlands (Dem.)
- 3. Jacob H. Gallinger (Rep.)
- 2. Henry E. Burnham (Rep.)
- 1. John Kean (Rep.)
- 2. John F. Dryden (Rep.)
- 3. Thomas C. Platt (Rep.)
- 1. Chauncey M. Depew (Rep.)
- 2. Furnifold M. Simmons (Dem.)
- 3. Lee S. Overman (Dem.)
- 3. Henry C. Hansbrough (Rep.)
- 1. Porter J. McCumber (Rep.)
- 3. Joseph B. Foraker (Rep.)
- 1. Marcus A. Hanna (Rep.) ...died February 15, 1904
- Charles W. F. Dick (Rep.) ...elected to fill vacancy March 2, 1904
- 2. John H. Mitchell (Rep.)
- 3. Charles W. Fulton (Rep.)
- 3. Boies Penrose (Rep.)
- 1. Matthew S. Quay (Rep.) ...died May 28, 1904
- Philander C. Knox (Rep.) ...appointed to fill vacancy, June 10, 1904
- 1. Nelson W. Aldrich (Rep.)
- 2. George P. Wetmore (Rep.)
- 2. Benjamin R. Tillman (Dem.)
- 3. Asbury C. Latimer (Dem.)
- 2. Robert J. Gamble (Rep.)
- 3. Alfred B. Kittredge Rep.)
- 1. William B. Bate (Dem.)
- 2. Edward W. Carmack (Dem.)
- 1. Charles A. Culberson (Dem.)
- 2. Joseph W. Bailey (Dem.)
- 1. Thomas Kearns (Rep.)
- 3. Reed Smoot (Rep.)
- 1. Redfield Proctor (Rep.)
- 3. William P. Dillingham (Rep.)
- 1. John W. Daniel (Dem.)
- 2. Thomas S. Martin (Dem.)
- 1. Addison G. Foster (Silver Rep.)
- 3. Levi Ankeny (Silver Rep.)
- 2. Stephen B. Elkins (Rep.)
- 1. Nathan B. Scott (Rep.)
- 3. John C. Spooner (Rep.)
- 1. Joseph V. Quarles (Rep.)
- 1. Clarence D. Clark (Rep.)
- 2. Francis E. Warren (Rep.)
[edit] Representatives
- 1. George W. Taylor (Dem.)
- 2. Aristo A. Wiley (Dem.)
- 3. Henry D. Clayton (Dem.)
- 4. Sydney J. Bowie (Dem.)
- 5. Charles Winston Thompson (Dem.)
- 6. John H. Bankhead (Dem.)
- 7. John L. Burnett (Dem.)
- 8. William N. Richardson (Dem.)
- 9. Oscar W. Underwood (Dem.)
- 1. Robert B. Macon (Dem.)
- 2. Stephen Brundidge, Jr. (Dem.)
- 3. Hugh A. Dinsmore (Dem.)
- 4. John S. Little (Dem.)
- 5. Charles C. Reid (Dem.)
- 6. Joseph Taylor Robinson (Dem.)
- 7. Robert M. Wallace (Dem.)
- 1. James N. Gillett (Rep.)
- 2. Theodore A. Bell (Dem.)
- 3. Victor H. Metcalf (Rep.)
- 4. Edward J. Livernash (Dem.)
- 5. William J. Wynn (Dem.)
- 6. James C. Needham (Rep.)
- 7. James McLachlan (Rep.)
- 8. Milton J. Daniels (Rep.)
- 1. E. Stevens Henry (Rep.)
- 2. Nehemiah D. Sperry (Rep.)
- 3. Frank B. Brandegee (Rep.)
- 4. Ebenezer J. Hill (Rep.)
- A/L. George L. Lilley (Rep.)
- 1. Rufus E. Lester (Dem.)
- 2. James M. Griggs (Dem.)
- 3. Elijah B. Lewis (Dem.)
- 4. William C. Adamson (Dem.)
- 5. Leonidas F. Livingston (Dem.)
- 6. Charles L. Bartlett (Dem.)
- 7. John W. Maddox (Dem.)
- 8. William M. Howard (Dem.)
- 9. Farish C. Tate (Dem.)
- 10. Thomas W. Hardwick (Dem.)
- 11. William G. Brantley (Dem.)
- 1. Martin Emerich (Dem.)
- 2. James R. Mann (Rep.)
- 3. William W. Wilson (Rep.)
- 4. George P. Foster (Dem.)
- 5. James McAndrews (Dem.)
- 6. William Lorimer (Rep.)
- 7. Philip Knopf (Rep.)
- 8. William F. Mahoney (Dem.)
- 9. Henry S. Boutell (Rep.)
- 10. George E. Foss (Rep.)
- 11. Howard M. Snapp (Rep.)
- 12. Charles E. Fuller (Rep.)
- 13. Robert R. Hitt (Rep.)
- 14. Benjamin F. Marsh (Rep.)
- 15. George W. Prince (Rep.)
- 16. Joseph V. Graff (Rep.)
- 17. John A. Sterling (Rep.)
- 18. Joseph G. Cannon (Rep.)
- 19. Vespasian Warner (Rep.)
- 20. Henry T. Rainey (Dem.)
- 21. Ben F. Caldwell (Dem.)
- 22. William A. Rodenberg (Rep.)
- 23. Joseph B. Crowley (Dem.)
- 24. James R. Williams (Dem.)
- 25. George W. Smith (Rep.)
- 1. James A. Hemenway (Rep.)
- 2. Robert W. Miers (Dem.)
- 3. William T. Zenor (Dem.)
- 4. Francis T. Griffith (Dem.)
- 5. Elias S. Holliday (Rep.)
- 6. James E. Watson (Rep.)
- 7. Jesse Overstreet (Rep.)
- 8. George W. Cromer (Rep.)
- 9. Charles B. Landis (Rep.)
- 10. Edgar D. Crumpacker (Rep.)
- 11. Frederick Landis (Rep.)
- 12. James M. Robinson (Dem.)
- 13. Abraham L. Brick (Rep.)
- 1. Thomas Hedge (Rep.)
- 2. Martin Joseph Wade (Dem.)
- 3. Benjamin P. Birdsall (Rep.)
- 4. Gilbert N. Haugen (Rep.)
- 5. Robert G. Cousins (Rep.)
- 6. John F. Lacey (Rep.)
- 7. John A. T. Hull (Rep.)
- 8. William P. Hepburn (Rep.)
- 9. Walter I. Smith (Rep.)
- 10. James P. Conner (Rep.)
- 11. Lot Thomas (Rep.)
- 1. Charles Curtis (Rep.)
- 2. Justin De Witt Bowersock (Rep.)
- 3. Philip Pitt Campbell (Rep.)
- 4. James Monroe Miller (Rep.)
- 5. William Alexander Calderhead (Rep.)
- 6. William Augustus Reeder (Rep.)
- 7. Victor Murdock (Rep.)
- A/L. Charles Frederick Scott (Rep.)
- 1. Ollie M. James (Dem.)
- 2. Augustus Stanley (Dem.)
- 3. John Stockdale Rhea (Dem.)
- 4. David Highbaugh Smith (Dem.)
- 5. J. Swagar Sherley (Dem.)
- 6. Daniel Linn Gooch (Dem.)
- 7. South Trimble (Dem.)
- 8. George G. Gilbert (Dem.)
- 9. James Nicholas Kehoe (Dem.)
- 10. Francis A. Hopkins (Dem.)
- 11. W. Godfrey Hunter (Rep.)
- 1. Adolph Meyer (Dem.)
- 2. Robert Charles Davey (Dem.)
- 3. Robert Foligny Broussard (Dem.)
- 4. Phanor Breazale (Dem.)
- 5. Joseph Eugene Ransdell (Dem.)
- 6. Samuel Matthews Robinson (Dem.)
- 7. Arsène Paulin Pujó (Dem.)
- 1. Amos L. Allen (Rep.)
- 2. Charles E. Littlefield (Rep.)
- 3. Edwin C. Burleigh (Rep.)
- 4. Llewellyn Powers (Rep.)
- 1. William Humphreys Jackson (Rep.)
- 2. J. Frederick C. Talbott (Dem.)
- 3. Frank C. Wachter (Rep.)
- 4. James W. Denny (Dem.)
- 5. Sydney Emanuel Mudd I (Rep.)
- 6. George A. Pearre (Rep.)
- 1. George P. Lawrence (Rep.)
- 2. Frederick H. Gillett (Rep.)
- 3. John R. Thayer (Dem.)
- 4. Charles Q. Tirrell (Rep.)
- 5. Butler Ames (Rep.)
- 6. Augustus P. Gardner (Rep.)
- 7. Ernest W. Roberts (Rep.)
- 8. Samuel W. McCall (Rep.)
- 9. John A. Keliher (Dem.)
- 10. William S. McNary (Dem.)
- 11. John A. Sullivan (Dem.)
- 12. Samuel Leland Powers (Rep.)
- 13. William S. Greene (Rep.)
- 14. William C. Lovering (Rep.)
- 1. Alfred Lucking (Dem.)
- 2. Charles E. Townsend (Rep.)
- 3. Washington Gardner (Rep.)
- 4. Edward L. Hamilton (Rep.)
- 5. William A. Smith (Rep.)
- 6. Samuel W. Smith (Rep.)
- 7. Henry McMorran (Rep.)
- 8. Joseph W. Fordney (Rep.)
- 9. Roswell P. Bishop (Rep.)
- 10. George A. Loud (Rep.)
- 11. Archibald B. Darragh (Rep.)
- 12. H. Olin Young (Rep.)
- 1. James Albertus Tawney (Rep.)
- 2. James McCleary (Rep.)
- 3. Charles Russell Davis (Rep.)
- 4. Frederick Stevens (Rep.)
- 5. John Lind (Dem.)
- 6. Clarence Buckman (Rep.)
- 7. Andrew Volstead (Rep.)
- 8. James Bede (Rep.)
- 9. Halvor Steenerson (Rep.)
- 1. Ezekiel Samuel Candler (Dem.)
- 2. Thomas Day Spight (Dem.)
- 3. Benjamin G. Humphreys (Dem.)
- 4. Wilson S. Hill (Dem.)
- 5. Adam M. Byrd (Dem.)
- 6. Eaton J. Bowers (Dem.)
- 7. Frank A. McLain (Dem.)
- 8. John Sharp Williams (Dem.)
- 1. James Tilghman Lloyd (Dem.)
- 2. William Waller Rucker (Dem.)
- 3. John Anderson Dougherty (Dem.)
- 4. Charles Fremont Cochran (Dem.)
- 5. William Strother Cowherd (Dem.)
- 6. David Albaugh De Armond (Dem.)
- 7. Courtney W. Hamlin (Dem.)
- 8. Dorsey William Shackleford (Dem.)
- 9. James Beauchamp Clark (Dem.)
- 10. Richard Stebbins Bartholdt (Rep.)
- 11. John T. Hunt (Dem.)
- 12. James Joseph Butler (Dem.)
- 13. Edward Franklin Robb (Dem.)
- 14. Willard Duncan Vandiver (Dem.)
- 15. Maecenas Eason Benton (Dem.)
- 16. J. Robert Lamar (Dem.)
- At Large - Joseph M. Dixon (Rep.)
- 1. Elmer Jacob Burkett (Rep.)
- 2. Gilbert M. Hitchcock (Dem.)
- 3. John J McCarthy (Rep.)
- 4. Edmund H. Hinshaw (Rep.)
- 5. George W. Norris (Rep.)
- 6. Moses P. Kinkaid (Rep.)
- At Large - Clarence D. Van Duzer (Dem.)
- 1. Cyrus Adams Sulloway (Rep.)
- 2. Frank Dunklee Currier (Rep.)
- 1. Henry Clay Loudenslager (Rep.)
- 2. John James Gardner (Rep.)
- 3. Benjamin Franklin Howell (Rep.)
- 4. William M. Lanning (Rep.), resigned
- 5. Charles N. Fowler (Rep.)
- 6. William Hughes (Dem.)
- 7. Richard W. Parker (Rep.)
- 8. William H. Wiley (Rep.)
- 9. Allan Benny (Dem.)
- 10. Allan L. McDermott (Dem.)
- 1. Townsend Scudder (Dem.)
- 2. George H. Lindsay (Dem.)
- 3. Charles T. Dunwell (Rep.)
- 4. Frank E. Wilson (Dem.)
- 5. Edward M. Bassett (Dem.)
- 6. Robert Baker (Dem.)
- 7. John J. Fitzgerald (Dem.)
- 8. Timothy D. Sullivan (Dem.)
- 9. Henry M. Goldfogle (Dem.)
- 10. William Sulzer (Dem.)
- 11. William Randolph Hearst (Dem.)
- 12. W. Bourke Cockran (Dem.)
- 13. Francis B. Harrison (Dem.)
- 14. Ira E. Rider (Dem.)
- 15. William H. Douglas (Rep.)
- 16. Jacob Ruppert, Jr. (Dem.)
- 17. Francis E. Shober (Dem.)
- 18. Joseph A. Goulden (Dem.)
- 19. Norton P. Otis (Rep.)
- 20. Thomas W. Bradley (Rep.)
- 21. John H. Ketcham (Rep.)
- 22. William H. Draper (Rep.)
- 23. George N. Southwick (Rep.)
- 24. George J. Smith (Rep.)
- 25. Lucius L. Littauer (Rep.)
- 26. William H. Flack (Rep.)
- 27. James S. Sherman (Rep.)
- 28. Charles L. Knapp (Rep.)
- 29. Michael E. Driscoll (Rep.)
- 30. John W. Dwight (Rep.)
- 31. Sereno E. Payne (Rep.)
- 32. James B. Perkins (Rep.)
- 33. Charles W. Gillet (Rep.)
- 34. James W. Wadsworth (Rep.)
- 35. William H. Ryan (Dem.)
- 36. De Alva S. Alexander (Rep.)
- 37. Edward B. Vreeland (Rep.)
- 1. John Humphrey Small (Dem.)
- 2. Claude Henry Kitchin (Dem.)
- 3. Charles Randolph Thomas (Dem.)
- 4. Edward William Pou (Dem.)
- 5. William Walton Kitchin (Dem.)
- 6. Gilbert B. Patterson (Dem.)
- 7. Robert N. Page (Dem.)
- 8. Theodore F. Kluttz (Dem.)
- 9. Edwin Y. Webb (Dem.)
- 10. James M. Gudger, Jr. (Dem.)
- 1. Thomas Frank Marshall (Rep.)
- 2. Burleigh F. Spalding (Rep.)
- 1. Nicholas Longworth (Rep.)
- 2. Herman P. Goebel (Rep.)
- 3. Robert M. Nevin (Rep.)
- 4. Harvey C. Garber (Dem.)
- 5. John Stout Snook (Dem.)
- 6. Charles Quinn Hildebrant (Rep.)
- 7. Thomas Barton Kyle (Rep.)
- 8. William Robert Warnock (Rep.)
- 9. James Harding Southard (Rep.)
- 10. Stephen Austin Morgan (Rep.)
- 11. Charles Henry Grosvenor (Rep.)
- 12. De Witt C. Badger (Dem.)
- 13. Amos H. Jackson (Rep.)
- 14. William Woodburn Skiles (Rep.)
- 17. John Wilson Cassingham (Dem.)
- 18. James Kennedy (Rep.)
- 19. Charles William Dick (Rep.), resigned
- 20. Jacob Atlee Beidler (Rep.)
- 21. Theodore Elijah Burton (Rep.)
- 1. Henry H. Bingham (Rep.)
- 2. Robert Adams, Jr. (Rep.)
- 3. Henry Burk (Rep.), died in office
- 4. Robert H. Foerderer (Rep.), died in office
- 5. Edward de Veaux Morrell (Rep.)
- 6. George D. McCreary (Rep.)
- 7. Thomas S. Butler (Rep.)
- 8. Irving P. Wanger (Rep.)
- 9. Henry B. Cassel (Rep.)
- 10. George Howell (Dem.), election was contested by William Connell
- 11. Henry W. Palmer (Rep.)
- 12. George R. Patterson (Rep.)
- 13. Marcus C.L. Kline (Dem.)
- 14. Charles F. Wright (Rep.)
- 15. Elias Deemer (Rep.)
- 16. Charles H. Dickerman (Dem.)
- 17. Thaddeus M. Mahon(Rep.)
- 18. Marlin E. Olmsted (Rep.)
- 19. Alvin Evans (Rep.)
- 20. Daniel F. Lafean (Rep.)
- 21. Solomon R. Dresser (Rep.)
- 22. George F. Huff (Rep.)
- 23. Allen F. Cooper (Rep.)
- 24. Ernest F. Acheson (Rep.)
- 25. Arthur L. Bates (Rep.)
- 26. Joseph H. Shull (Dem.)
- 27. William O. Smith (Rep.)
- 28. Joseph C. Sibley (Rep.)
- 29. George Shiras III (Rep.)
- 30. John Dalzell (Rep.)
- 31. Henry K. Porter (Rep.)
- 32. James W. Brown (Rep.)
- 1. George S. Legare (Dem.)
- 2. George W. Croft (Dem.)
- 3. Wyatt Aiken (Dem.)
- 4. Joseph Travis Johnson (Dem.)
- 5. David Edward Finley (Dem.)
- 6. Robert Bethea Scarborough (Dem.)
- 7. Asbury F. Lever (Dem.)
- 1. Walter P. Brownlow (Rep.)
- 2. Henry Richard Gibson (Rep.)
- 3. John Austin Moon (Dem.)
- 4. Morgan Cassius Fitzpatrick (Dem.)
- 5. James Daniel Richardson (Dem.)
- 6. John Wesley Gaines (Dem.)
- 7. Lemuel Phillips Padgett (Dem.)
- 8. Thetus Willrette Sims (Dem.)
- 9. Rice Alexander Pierce (Dem.)
- 10. Malcolm R. Patterson (Dem.)
- 1. John Levi Sheppard (Dem.)
- 2. Samuel Bronson Cooper (Dem.)
- 3. Gordon James Russell (Dem.)
- 4. Choice Boswell Randell (Dem.)
- 5. Jack Beall (Dem.)
- 6. Scott Field (Dem.)
- 7. Alexander W. Gregg (Dem.)
- 8. Thomas Henry Ball (Dem.)
- 9. George Farmer Burgess (Dem.)
- 10. Albert Sidney Burleson (Dem.)
- 11. Robert Lee Henry (Dem.)
- 12. Oscar W. Gillespie(Dem.)
- 13. John Hall Stephens (Dem.)
- 14. James L. Slayden (Dem.)
- 15. John Nance Garner (Dem.)
- 16. William R. Smith (Dem.)
- At Large - Joseph Howell (Rep.)
- 1. William Atkinson Jones (Dem.)
- 2. Harry Lee Maynard (Dem.)
- 3. John Fletcher Lamb (Dem.)
- 4. Robert G. Southall (Dem.)
- 5. Claude Augustus Swanson (Dem.)
- 6. Carter Glass (Dem.)
- 7. James Nelson Hay (Dem.)
- 8. John Franklin Rixey (Dem.)
- 9. Campbell Slemp (Rep.)
- 10. Henry De Flood (Dem.)
- 1. Wesley Livsey Jones (Rep.)
- 2. Francis Wellington Cushman (Rep.)
- 3. William E. Humphrey (Rep.)
- 1. Blackburn Barrett Dovener (Rep.)
- 2. Alston Gordon Dayton (Rep.)
- 3. Joseph Holt Gaines (Rep.)
- 4. Harry C. Woodyard (Rep.)
- 5. James Anthony Hughes (Rep.)
- 1. *Henry Allen Cooper (Rep.)
- 2. *Henry C. Adams (Rep.)
- 3. *Joseph W. Babcock (Rep.)
- 4. *Theobald Johnston Otjen (Rep.)
- 5. *William H. Stafford (Rep.)
- 6. *Charles H. Weisse (Dem.)
- 7. *John Jacob Esch (Rep.)
- 8. *James Henry Davidson (Rep.)
- 9. *Edward Sloman Minor (Rep.)
- 10. *Webster Everett Brown (Rep.)
- 11. *John James Jenkins (Rep.)
- At Large - Franklin Wheeler Mondell (Rep.)
[edit] Delegates
- Bird Segle McGuire (Rep.)
[edit] Resident Commissioner
[edit] Officers
[edit] Senate
- Secretary of the Senate:
- Charles G. Bennett of New York, elected February 1, 1900.
- Sergeant at Arms of the Senate:
- Daniel M. Ransdell of Indiana, elected February 1, 1900.
- Chaplain of the Senate
- The Rev. F.J. Prettyman, Methodist, elected December 2, 1902.
- The Rev. Edward E. Hale, Unitarian, elected December 14, 1903.
[edit] House of Representatives
- Clerk of the House:
- Alexander McDowell of Pennsylvania, elected November 9, 1903.
- Sergeant at Arms of the House:
- Henry Casson of Wisconsin, elected November 9, 1903.
- Doorkeeper of the House:
- Frank B. Lyon of New York, elected November 9, 1903.
- Postmaster of the House:
- Joseph McElroy of Ohio, elected November 9, 1903.
- Clerk at the Speaker’s Table:
- Asher C. Hinds
- Chaplain of the House
- The Rev. Henry N. Couden, Universalist, elected November 9, 1903.
[edit] Other
- Architect of the Capitol:
- Elliott Woods, appointed February 19, 1902.
[edit] References
- Gould, Lewis L. (2005). The Most Exclusive Club. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books Group. 0-465-02778-4.
- Remini, Robert V. (2006). The House. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. 0-06-088434-7.
- U.S. Congress (2005). Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress. Retrieved on June 1, 2006.
- U.S. House of Representatives (2006). Congressional History. Retrieved on June 1, 2006.
- U.S. Senate (2006). Statistics and Lists. Retrieved on June 1, 2006.
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